South Indian Dynasties — Chalukyas, Pallavas & Rashtrakutas

Why This Chapter Matters

This is one of the highest-yield chapters in the ancient India section for SSC and RRB exams. Expect 2 to 4 questions directly from this period in most SSC CGL, CHSL and RRB NTPC general awareness papers, and it also feeds questions in the art and culture section because so much temple architecture belongs here. Examiners love this period because it gives clean, testable facts: a founder, a capital, a famous ruler, and one landmark monument each.

The most repeated sub-topics are the Pulakeshin II versus Narasimhavarman I rivalry (who defeated whom and when), the Kailasa temple at Ellora and who built it, the Pattadakal and Aihole temple groups, and the founder-capital pairs for each dynasty. Get these five facts locked and you will answer almost every question this chapter throws at you.

1. The Political Background of Early Medieval South India

After the Sangam age faded and the obscure Kalabhras interlude ended (roughly 3rd to 6th century CE, a period of weak central authority in Tamil country), three major powers rose to dominate peninsular India between the 6th and 10th centuries: the Chalukyas in the Deccan (modern Karnataka), the Pallavas in the Tamil country around Kanchipuram, and later the Rashtrakutas, who displaced the Chalukyas in the Deccan.

These three powers fought each other constantly over roughly four centuries. The prize was control of the fertile Krishna-Tungabhadra doab and access to the rich Tamil coast for overseas trade. This chapter treats them in the order they rose to prominence.

2. The Chalukyas of Badami (Early Western Chalukyas)

The Chalukyas of Badami were the first of the three great powers to rise. Their base was Vatapi (modern Badami in Karnataka), so historians also call them the Early Western Chalukyas, to separate them from a later Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani that rose after the Rashtrakutas.

Pulakeshin I founded the dynasty around 543 CE and made Vatapi his capital. He performed the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) to declare his sovereignty. His successors Kirtivarman I and Mangalesha expanded the kingdom before internal succession disputes weakened it briefly.

The dynasty's greatest ruler was Pulakeshin II (r. 609–642 CE), Kirtivarman I's son, who took the throne after defeating his uncle Mangalesha. His reign is recorded in the Aihole inscription (also called the Aihole Prashasti), composed by his court poet Ravikirti in 634 CE. This inscription is a key primary source for the period; it is written in Sanskrit in the Kannada script.

Pulakeshin II's most famous achievement was defeating Harshavardhana of Kannauj on the banks of the Narmada river, around 618–620 CE. This victory stopped Harsha's southward expansion and fixed the Narmada as a rough boundary between north and south Indian power for the period. Pulakeshin II also received the Persian ambassador of Khusrau II and hosted the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, who left a description of his court.

Pulakeshin II's southward campaigns against the Pallavas eventually cost him his life. The Pallava king Narasimhavarman I invaded the Chalukya kingdom, sacked Vatapi in 642 CE, and killed Pulakeshin II in battle. This defeat is the single most tested fact of this chapter.

The Chalukyas recovered under Vikramaditya I (Pulakeshin II's son), who drove out the Pallava garrison and restored Chalukya power, later marching on Kanchi himself in revenge. Later rulers Vikramaditya II (r. 733–744 CE) again defeated the Pallavas and sacked Kanchipuram, but unlike earlier sackings, he is recorded as sparing its temples out of respect. The dynasty ended when its last ruler, Kirtivarman II, was overthrown around 753 CE by his Rashtrakuta feudatory Dantidurga.

2.1 The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

Pulakeshin II's brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana, was made viceroy of the eastern Deccan around 624 CE, with his capital at Vengi (in coastal Andhra Pradesh, near modern Eluru). This branch became independent as the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and survived far longer than the parent Badami line, lasting into the 11th and 12th centuries. Late in their history, an Eastern Chalukya prince, Rajaraja Narendra, married into the Chola royal family; his son, Kulottunga I, later united the Vengi and Chola thrones, merging the two lines. Vengi rulers are a minor but occasionally tested fact; do not confuse this dynasty with the main Chalukyas of Badami.

3. The Pallavas of Kanchi

The Pallavas ruled the Tondaimandalam region of northern Tamil Nadu from their capital Kanchipuram (Kanchi). Their exact origin is debated among historians (theories range from an indigenous line to Parthian or north Indian roots), but the imperial line effectively begins with Simhavishnu around 575 CE, who overran the Kalabhras and established firm Pallava control over the Tamil country.

Mahendravarman I (r. 600–630 CE) is one of the most colourful rulers of this period. He was a poet and playwright; his Sanskrit satire Mattavilasa Prahasana mocks Buddhist and Shaiva ascetics and survives today. He began the tradition of excavating rock-cut cave temples in Tamil Nadu, a style historians call the "Mahendra style." He fought Pulakeshin II and lost territory in the north of his kingdom during this conflict.

His son Narasimhavarman I, also called Mahamalla ("great wrestler"), avenged his father by invading the Chalukya kingdom, defeating and killing Pulakeshin II, and sacking Vatapi in 642 CE. He earned the title "Vatapikonda" (conqueror of Vatapi) for this. Narasimhavarman I is equally famous for developing the port town of Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram, named after him), where the famous rock-cut rathas (monolithic "chariot" shrines, the Pancha Rathas) were carved during his reign. He also sent a naval expedition to help a Sinhala prince, Manavarma, regain the throne of Sri Lanka, showing Pallava naval reach. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during this period and described it as a great centre of Buddhist learning.

Later Pallava rulers of note:

• Parameshvaravarman I fought further wars with the Chalukyas.
• Narasimhavarman II, also called Rajasimha (r. c. 700–728 CE), was a peaceful, temple-building king. He built the famous structural Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram and completed the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, both landmark monuments in structural Dravidian style (as opposed to the earlier rock-cut style).
• Nandivarman II Pallavamalla built the Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram, whose sculpted panels narrate Pallava dynastic history.

The dynasty declined through the 9th century amid renewed Chalukya-Rashtrakuta pressure from the north. The last significant Pallava ruler, Aparajitavarman, was defeated around 897 CE by the Chola king Aditya I, an event that marks the effective end of Pallava power and the rise of the imperial Cholas, covered in the next chapter.

4. The Chalukya-Pallava Rivalry: A Quick Recap

Because this is heavily tested, here is the rivalry laid out as a simple sequence:

1. Mahendravarman I (Pallava) loses northern territory to Pulakeshin II (Chalukya), early 7th century.
2. Pulakeshin II defeats Harshavardhana at the Narmada, c. 618–620 CE (a separate, unrelated victory, often confused with the Pallava conflict in exam options).
3. Narasimhavarman I (Pallava) defeats and kills Pulakeshin II, sacks Vatapi, 642 CE.
4. Vikramaditya I (Chalukya) restores power and retaliates against the Pallavas.
5. Vikramaditya II (Chalukya) sacks Kanchi again in the 740s CE but spares its temples.
6. The Chalukyas of Badami are finally overthrown not by the Pallavas but by their own feudatory, the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga, around 753 CE.

5. The Rashtrakutas

The Rashtrakutas rose as feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami and overthrew them. Dantidurga (r. 735–756 CE) is credited as the founder; he defeated the last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, around 753 CE and established Rashtrakuta supremacy over the Deccan. The dynasty's capital was Manyakheta (also called Malkhed), in modern Karnataka.

Dantidurga's uncle and successor, Krishna I (r. 756–774 CE), is remembered for one of the greatest achievements of Indian rock-cut architecture: the Kailasa temple at Ellora (Cave 16). This entire temple, complete with a shikhara, mandapa, and surrounding cloisters, was carved out of a single basalt rock hill from the top downward, without any joining of stone blocks. It remains the largest monolithic rock-cut structure in the world and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with the rest of the Ellora caves.

Govinda III (r. 793–814 CE) extended Rashtrakuta power into north India, briefly humbling both the Pratiharas and the Palas, the two other major powers of the "tripartite struggle" for Kannauj (a contest covered in the medieval India book, since it runs past 1200 CE in its later phases).

Amoghavarsha I (r. 814–878 CE) was the longest-reigning and arguably most important Rashtrakuta king. He moved the capital firmly to Manyakheta, patronised Jainism heavily, and himself wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known treatise on poetics in the Kannada language. The Arab traveller Sulaiman, who visited India during his reign, described the Rashtrakuta king as one of the four great rulers of the contemporary world, alongside the Caliph of Baghdad, the Byzantine Emperor, and the Chinese Emperor.

Later rulers: Indra III briefly sacked Kannauj in 916 CE, a major military feat. Krishna III (r. 939–967 CE) defeated the Cholas at the Battle of Takkolam in 949 CE, the last major Rashtrakuta military success. The dynasty ended around 973 CE, when the last Rashtrakuta king was overthrown by Tailapa II, who founded the later Chalukyas of Kalyani (Western Chalukyas), a dynasty belonging to the medieval period.

6. Dravidian Architecture Basics

South India in this period developed the Dravida style of temple architecture, one of the three broad Indian temple styles (the other two, Nagara and Vesara, are covered in the art and architecture chapter). Its key markers are a pyramidal, storeyed vimana (tower over the sanctum, distinct from the curved Nagara shikhara), a gopuram (gateway tower, which became more prominent in later Chola and Vijayanagara temples), and an enclosed courtyard.

The Pallavas pioneered this style in two phases:

• Mahendra style: rock-cut cave temples (mandapas) started under Mahendravarman I, simple pillared halls cut into hillsides.
• Mamalla style: monolithic rathas (chariot-shaped shrines) carved whole out of single boulders at Mahabalipuram under Narasimhavarman I. The Pancha Rathas there are the best-known example.
• Rajasimha style: the shift to structural (built, not carved) temples, best seen in the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram, both under Narasimhavarman II.

The Chalukyas of Badami contributed their own experimental temple sites:

• Aihole, often called a laboratory or "cradle" of Indian temple architecture because of the sheer variety of early temple experiments there, including the Ladkhan temple and the Durga temple.
• Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, where Queen Lokamahadevi, wife of Vikramaditya II, built the Virupaksha temple to commemorate her husband's victory over the Pallavas. Pattadakal is notable for having temples in both Nagara (northern) and Dravida (southern) styles side by side, showing direct architectural exchange between north and south.

The Rashtrakutas' single greatest architectural contribution is the Kailasa temple at Ellora described above, which remains the high point of Indian rock-cut temple art.

This period of dynastic and architectural competition set the stage for the next great South Indian power. The Cholas, who rose from defeating the last Pallavas in 897 CE, would take Dravidian temple building to its imperial peak, the subject of the next chapter.

Quick Revision — One-Line Facts

• The Chalukyas of Badami were founded by Pulakeshin I around 543 CE, capital Vatapi (Badami).
• Pulakeshin II (609–642 CE) defeated Harshavardhana on the Narmada, around 618–620 CE.
• The Aihole inscription (634 CE), by court poet Ravikirti, records Pulakeshin II's achievements.
• Narasimhavarman I (Pallava) killed Pulakeshin II and sacked Vatapi in 642 CE.
• Narasimhavarman I earned the title "Vatapikonda."
• Narasimhavarman I developed the port of Mahabalipuram and carved the Pancha Rathas there.
• Mahendravarman I wrote the Sanskrit satire Mattavilasa Prahasana.
• Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha) built the Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram) and Kailasanatha temple (Kanchipuram).
• Nandivarman II Pallavamalla built the Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram.
• The last Pallava, Aparajitavarman, was defeated by Chola king Aditya I around 897 CE.
• The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were founded by Kubja Vishnuvardhana around 624 CE.
• Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra's son Kulottunga I later united Vengi and Chola thrones.
• The Chalukyas of Badami ended when Kirtivarman II was overthrown by Dantidurga (Rashtrakuta), c. 753 CE.
• Dantidurga founded the Rashtrakuta dynasty; capital was Manyakheta (Malkhed).
• Krishna I (756–774 CE) built the monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora (Cave 16).
• Amoghavarsha I (814–878 CE) wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest Kannada work on poetics.
• Arab traveller Sulaiman called the Rashtrakuta king one of the four great rulers of the world.
• Indra III sacked Kannauj in 916 CE.
• Krishna III defeated the Cholas at the Battle of Takkolam in 949 CE.
• The Rashtrakuta dynasty ended around 973 CE, overthrown by Tailapa II.
• Aihole is called a "laboratory" of early Indian temple architecture; key temples are the Ladkhan and Durga temples.
• Pattadakal has temples in both Nagara and Dravida styles; its Virupaksha temple was built by Queen Lokamahadevi.
• The Kalabhras ruled Tamil country in the obscure period before the Pallavas restored order.
• Simhavishnu established the imperial Pallava line around 575 CE, overthrowing the Kalabhras.
• Vikramaditya II sacked Kanchi in the 740s CE but is recorded as sparing its temples.
• Govinda III (Rashtrakuta) briefly humbled both the Pratiharas and the Palas in the north.
• Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, visited both Pulakeshin II's court and Kanchipuram under Narasimhavarman I.

Memory Tables

Table 1: Founder, Capital and Key Ruler by Dynasty

Dynasty	Founder	Capital	Most Famous Ruler	Famous For
Chalukyas of Badami	Pulakeshin I (c. 543 CE)	Vatapi (Badami)	Pulakeshin II	Defeated Harsha; killed by Pallavas, 642 CE
Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi	Kubja Vishnuvardhana (c. 624 CE)	Vengi	Rajaraja Narendra	Merged with Cholas via Kulottunga I
Pallavas	Simhavishnu (c. 575 CE)	Kanchipuram	Narasimhavarman I	Sacked Vatapi; built Mahabalipuram monuments
Rashtrakutas	Dantidurga (c. 735 CE)	Manyakheta (Malkhed)	Krishna I / Amoghavarsha I	Kailasa temple, Ellora; Kavirajamarga

Table 2: Key Battles and Sackings

Year (approx.)	Event	Winner	Loser
618–620 CE	Battle on the Narmada	Pulakeshin II (Chalukya)	Harshavardhana
642 CE	Sack of Vatapi	Narasimhavarman I (Pallava)	Pulakeshin II (killed)
c. 670s CE	Chalukya recovery, revenge campaign	Vikramaditya I (Chalukya)	Pallava garrison
740s CE	Sack of Kanchi (temples spared)	Vikramaditya II (Chalukya)	Nandivarman II (Pallava)
753 CE	Overthrow of Badami Chalukyas	Dantidurga (Rashtrakuta)	Kirtivarman II (Chalukya)
897 CE	Defeat of last major Pallava	Aditya I (Chola)	Aparajitavarman (Pallava)
916 CE	Sack of Kannauj	Indra III (Rashtrakuta)	Pratihara ruler of Kannauj
949 CE	Battle of Takkolam	Krishna III (Rashtrakuta)	Chola forces
973 CE	Overthrow of Rashtrakutas	Tailapa II (later Chalukya)	Last Rashtrakuta king

Table 3: Monuments and Their Builders

Monument	Location	Built By	Style/Note
Pancha Rathas	Mahabalipuram	Narasimhavarman I	Monolithic rock-cut rathas (Mamalla style)
Shore Temple	Mahabalipuram	Narasimhavarman II	Early structural Dravida temple
Kailasanatha Temple	Kanchipuram	Narasimhavarman II	Structural Dravida temple
Vaikuntha Perumal Temple	Kanchipuram	Nandivarman II Pallavamalla	Panels depict Pallava history
Ladkhan and Durga Temples	Aihole	Chalukyas of Badami	Early experimental temple styles
Virupaksha Temple	Pattadakal	Queen Lokamahadevi (wife of Vikramaditya II)	Commemorates victory over Pallavas
Kailasa Temple (Cave 16)	Ellora	Krishna I (Rashtrakuta)	Largest monolithic rock-cut structure in the world

Practice MCQs

Q1. Who founded the Chalukya dynasty of Badami? (a) Pulakeshin II (b) Pulakeshin I (c) Kirtivarman I (d) Vikramaditya I

Q2. The Chalukyas of Badami had their capital at which of the following? (a) Kanchipuram (b) Manyakheta (c) Vatapi (d) Vengi

Q3. Which Pallava king killed Pulakeshin II and sacked Vatapi in 642 CE? (a) Mahendravarman I (b) Narasimhavarman I (c) Parameshvaravarman I (d) Nandivarman II

Q4. The Aihole inscription, describing the achievements of Pulakeshin II, was composed by which court poet? (a) Kalidasa (b) Banabhatta (c) Ravikirti (d) Dandin

Q5. Which of the following rulers built the monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora? (a) Amoghavarsha I (b) Dantidurga (c) Krishna I (d) Govinda III

Q6. Kanchipuram was the capital of which dynasty? (a) Rashtrakutas (b) Pallavas (c) Chalukyas of Badami (d) Kalabhras

Q7. Pulakeshin II defeated which north Indian ruler on the banks of the Narmada? (a) Chandragupta II (b) Harshavardhana (c) Skandagupta (d) Ashoka

Q8. Which Rashtrakuta king is credited with writing the Kavirajamarga, an early treatise on Kannada poetics? (a) Dantidurga (b) Krishna I (c) Amoghavarsha I (d) Indra III

Q9. Match the following rulers with their dynasties: 1. Simhavishnu, 2. Dantidurga, 3. Pulakeshin I, 4. Kubja Vishnuvardhana — A. Rashtrakutas, B. Pallavas, C. Chalukyas of Badami, D. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. (a) 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D (b) 1-A, 2-B, 3-D, 4-C (c) 1-C, 2-D, 3-B, 4-A (d) 1-D, 2-C, 3-A, 4-B

Q10. The Pancha Rathas, a group of monolithic rock-cut shrines, are located at which of the following sites? (a) Ellora (b) Aihole (c) Mahabalipuram (d) Pattadakal

Q11. Which of the following statements about Pattadakal is correct? (a) It has temples only in the Nagara style (b) It has temples in both Nagara and Dravida styles (c) It is the site of the Kailasa monolithic temple (d) It was the capital of the Rashtrakutas

Q12. Arrange the following events in chronological order: 1. Sack of Vatapi by Narasimhavarman I, 2. Overthrow of the last Chalukya of Badami by Dantidurga, 3. Battle on the Narmada between Pulakeshin II and Harsha, 4. Defeat of the last major Pallava ruler by Aditya I. (a) 3, 1, 2, 4 (b) 1, 3, 2, 4 (c) 3, 2, 1, 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4

Q13. Which Arab traveller, visiting during the reign of Amoghavarsha I, described the Rashtrakuta king as one of the four great rulers of the contemporary world? (a) Al-Biruni (b) Ibn Battuta (c) Sulaiman (d) Al-Masudi

Q14. The Rashtrakuta dynasty was finally overthrown around 973 CE by which ruler, who founded the later Chalukyas of Kalyani? (a) Tailapa II (b) Krishna III (c) Indra III (d) Vikramaditya II

Q15. Which of the following pairs of ruler and monument is INCORRECTLY matched? (a) Narasimhavarman II — Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram (b) Krishna I — Kailasa temple, Ellora (c) Nandivarman II Pallavamalla — Vaikuntha Perumal temple, Kanchipuram (d) Pulakeshin II — Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal

Answer Key

Q	Answer	One-line reason
1	(b)	Pulakeshin I founded the Chalukya dynasty of Badami around 543 CE.
2	(c)	Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka) was the Chalukya capital.
3	(b)	Narasimhavarman I killed Pulakeshin II and sacked Vatapi in 642 CE.
4	(c)	Ravikirti composed the Aihole inscription in 634 CE.
5	(c)	Krishna I built the monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora.
6	(b)	Kanchipuram was the Pallava capital.
7	(b)	Pulakeshin II defeated Harshavardhana at the Narmada, c. 618–620 CE.
8	(c)	Amoghavarsha I wrote the Kavirajamarga.
9	(a)	Simhavishnu-Pallava, Dantidurga-Rashtrakuta, Pulakeshin I-Chalukya of Badami, Kubja Vishnuvardhana-Eastern Chalukya.
10	(c)	The Pancha Rathas are at Mahabalipuram, carved under Narasimhavarman I.
11	(b)	Pattadakal uniquely has temples in both Nagara and Dravida styles.
12	(a)	Order: Narmada battle (618–620), sack of Vatapi (642), Dantidurga's overthrow of Chalukyas (753), Aditya I defeats last Pallava (897).
13	(c)	Sulaiman, the Arab traveller, made this observation during Amoghavarsha I's reign.
14	(a)	Tailapa II overthrew the Rashtrakutas around 973 CE and founded the later Chalukyas of Kalyani.
15	(d)	The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal was built by Queen Lokamahadevi under Vikramaditya II, not Pulakeshin II.