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Group-II Mains Supplement — Polity, Economy and AP Society · Chapter 2

Centre-State Commissions, Party System and Electoral Reforms

What to remember

  • Three bodies studied Centre-State relations: the Rajamannar Committee (1969), the Sarkaria Commission (1983) and the Punchhi Commission (2007). Sarkaria is the most quoted; its report led to the Inter-State Council.
  • The Tenth Schedule (52nd Amendment, 1985) is the anti-defection law. The 91st Amendment (2003) removed the "one-third split" protection and kept only the two-thirds merger rule.
  • Electoral reforms have come mostly through Supreme Court judgments and committee reports. Disclosure of candidates' background, NOTA, disqualification on conviction and VVPAT are the key items.

Why commissions were needed

India has a federal system with a strong Centre. Legislative powers are divided by the Seventh Schedule (Union, State and Concurrent Lists), and the Centre holds the residuary powers. Friction arose over the Governor's role, President's Rule under Article 356, financial grants, All India Services and the use of central forces. After 1967, when several States came under non-Congress governments, the demand for a review grew.

Rajamannar Committee (Tamil Nadu)

  • Appointed by the Tamil Nadu Government in 1969 under Dr P. V. Rajamannar; it reported in 1971.
  • Main suggestions: an Inter-State Council under Article 263; repeal of Article 356 and of provisions that let the Centre override States; more taxation power for States; end of All India Services in the long run; a permanent Finance Commission; and a larger share of central revenue for States.
  • Its work is an example of a State-level demand for autonomy. It was not binding on the Centre.

Sarkaria Commission

  • Set up in 1983 under Justice R. S. Sarkaria (a retired Supreme Court Judge); report submitted in 1988. It made over 240 recommendations.
  • It rejected the idea of weakening the Centre, but wanted a cooperative approach.
  • Governor: should be an eminent person from outside the State, not active in politics recently, and should have a fixed five-year term. The Chief Minister of the State should be consulted before the Governor is appointed.
  • Article 356: to be used only as a last resort when all other options fail; the State should be warned first.
  • Inter-State Council: a permanent body under Article 263. It was set up in 1990.
  • All India Services: to be strengthened and new ones created in public interest.
  • Residuary powers: legislative power over taxation stays with Parliament; other residuary subjects should be moved to the Concurrent List.
  • Other: consultation with States before legislating on Concurrent List items; Finance Commission to be assisted by a permanent secretariat; the National Development Council to be strengthened; the three-language formula to be implemented in full.
  • The Supreme Court's decision in S. R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) later set limits on the use of Article 356 and made the proclamation subject to judicial review.

Punchhi Commission

  • Set up in 2007 under Justice M. M. Punchhi (a former Chief Justice of India); it reported in 2010 in seven volumes.
  • It suggested a Governor's removal only by a resolution of the State Legislature, and a Governor's term not subject to the Centre's pleasure. It also said Governors should be chosen by a committee.
  • It said Article 356 should be used extremely rarely, and suggested "localised emergency" (limited to a district or part of a State) under Articles 355 and 356 before dismissing a State government.
  • It supported the Chief Minister's selection by clear conventions: the leader of the party with a majority, and a pre-poll coalition before a post-poll one.
  • It recommended that the Inter-State Council meet regularly and be the main forum for dispute handling.
CommissionYearHeadKey point
Rajamannar1969 (report 1971)P. V. RajamannarState autonomy; Inter-State Council
Sarkaria1983 (report 1988)R. S. SarkariaGovernor, Article 356, Inter-State Council
Punchhi2007 (report 2010)M. M. PunchhiLocalised emergency, Governor's removal

Institutions for cooperation

  • Inter-State Council (Article 263): chaired by the Prime Minister; Chief Ministers and some Union Ministers are members. It discusses subjects of common interest.
  • Zonal Councils: created by the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 and chaired by the Union Home Minister. Andhra Pradesh belongs to the Southern Zonal Council along with Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Puducherry.
  • NITI Aayog: replaced the Planning Commission on 1 January 2015 and is described as a platform for "cooperative federalism".
  • Finance Commission (Article 280): every five years; it recommends the sharing of central taxes between Centre and States.

Party system and anti-defection

India has a multi-party system. Political parties register with the Election Commission under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951. The Commission recognises them as National or State parties, based on vote share and seats, and allots symbols under the Election Symbols Order, 1968.

Tenth Schedule (52nd Amendment, 1985). Articles 102(2) and 191(2) disqualify a member under the Tenth Schedule.

A member is disqualified if:

  • 1. he or she voluntarily gives up membership of the party; or
  • 2. he or she votes or abstains against the party's direction (whip) without prior permission, and the party does not condone it within 15 days.

Also:

  • An independent member who joins a party after election is disqualified.
  • A nominated member who joins a party after six months from taking seat is disqualified.
  • Exception: a merger of the original party, if at least two-thirds of the legislature party agree. The earlier protection for a split of one-third was removed by the 91st Amendment, 2003.
  • Decision: by the Speaker or Chairman. In Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992), the Supreme Court upheld the Tenth Schedule but held that the Speaker's decision is open to judicial review; the clause giving complete immunity from courts was struck down.
  • In 2020 (Keisham Meghachandra Singh case), the Court said the Speaker should decide disqualification petitions ordinarily within three months.

91st Amendment, 2003: besides the split rule, it limits the Council of Ministers to 15 percent of the House (Articles 75(1A), 164(1A)) and requires a minimum of 12 Ministers in a State; a disqualified member cannot hold a ministerial or paid political post (Article 361B).

Electoral reforms

ReformSource or yearWhat it did
Voting age to 1861st Amendment, 1988Lowered from 21
Anti-defection52nd Amendment, 1985Tenth Schedule
Disclosure of criminal record, assets, educationADR v. Union of India (2002); PUCL case (2003)Candidates file affidavits
Disqualification on convictionSection 8(3) RPA 1951; Lily Thomas (2013)Two years or more of jail means immediate disqualification
NOTAPUCL v. Union of India (2013)"None of the above" option on EVMs
VVPATSubramanian Swamy v. ECI (2013); first used 2013Paper slip to verify vote

Committees: Tarkunde Committee (1975, set up by Jayaprakash Narayan), Dinesh Goswami Committee (1990) on electoral reforms, Vohra Committee (1993) on the nexus between crime and politics, and Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998) on State funding of elections. The Law Commission also studied the subject in its 170th report (1999). The Supreme Court struck down the electoral bonds scheme in 2024 on grounds of the voter's right to know about political funding.

Election Commission. Article 324 vests superintendence and control of elections in the Election Commission. The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed only in the same manner as a Supreme Court Judge. For appointments, the Court in 2023 directed a committee including the Chief Justice, but a later Act in 2023 set a committee of the Prime Minister, Leader of Opposition and a Union Minister (check the latest official release).

Exam traps

  • Rajamannar was a State-appointed committee (Tamil Nadu); Sarkaria and Punchhi were Union-appointed commissions.
  • Sarkaria reported in 1988; the Inter-State Council was formed in 1990.
  • The Inter-State Council is chaired by the Prime Minister; Zonal Councils by the Home Minister.
  • The Tenth Schedule came by the 52nd Amendment; the "split" exception was removed by the 91st.
  • Merger needs two-thirds of the legislature party, not one-third.
  • The Presiding Officer decides defection; the Court can review.
  • Voting age was cut from 21 to 18 by the 61st Amendment, not the 42nd.
  • NOTA was introduced by a Supreme Court order, not an Act of Parliament.

One-liners

  • 1. Rajamannar Committee headed by P. V. Rajamannar.
  • 2. Sarkaria Commission was appointed in 1983.
  • 3. Punchhi Commission was set up in 2007.
  • 4. Article 263 provides for the Inter-State Council.
  • 5. Southern Zonal Council includes Andhra Pradesh.
  • 6. The Tenth Schedule deals with anti-defection.
  • 7. A whip violation can lead to disqualification unless condoned in 15 days.
  • 8. 91st Amendment: Council of Ministers up to 15 percent of House strength.
  • 9. Kihoto Hollohan (1992) upheld the Tenth Schedule.
  • 10. Article 324 gives the Election Commission control over elections.
  • 11. 61st Amendment lowered the voting age to 18.
  • 12. NOTA came in 2013 by a Supreme Court judgment.

Practice questions

  1. The Rajamannar Committee on Centre-State relations was appointed by the government of

    1. Punjab
    2. Andhra Pradesh
    3. Tamil Nadu
    4. West Bengal
    Answer

    C. Tamil Nadu

    It was a State-appointed committee headed by P. V. Rajamannar (1969).

  2. The Sarkaria Commission was headed by

    1. P. V. Rajamannar
    2. Justice M. M. Punchhi
    3. Justice Venkatachaliah
    4. Justice R. S. Sarkaria
    Answer

    D. Justice R. S. Sarkaria

    It was set up in 1983 and reported in 1988.

  3. The Punchhi Commission on Centre-State relations was set up in

    1. 1983
    2. 2007
    3. 2014
    4. 1969
    Answer

    B. 2007

    It reported in 2010 in seven volumes.

  4. Which Article of the Constitution provides for the Inter-State Council?

    1. Article 280
    2. Article 263
    3. Article 324
    4. Article 356
    Answer

    B. Article 263

    Article 263 allows the President to establish an Inter-State Council.

  5. The Inter-State Council was actually set up in

    1. 1990
    2. 1950
    3. 2007
    4. 1988
    Answer

    A. 1990

    It followed the Sarkaria Commission's recommendation.

  6. The Inter-State Council is chaired by the

    1. President
    2. Union Home Minister
    3. Vice-President
    4. Prime Minister
    Answer

    D. Prime Minister

    Zonal Councils are chaired by the Home Minister, not the Inter-State Council.

  7. Zonal Councils in India were created by the

    1. Inter-State Water Disputes Act
    2. Government of India Act, 1935
    3. States Reorganisation Act, 1956
    4. Constitution (7th Amendment)
    Answer

    C. States Reorganisation Act, 1956

    They are statutory advisory bodies.

  8. Andhra Pradesh is a member of which Zonal Council?

    1. Western Zonal Council
    2. Southern Zonal Council
    3. North Eastern Council
    4. Central Zonal Council
    Answer

    B. Southern Zonal Council

    The Southern Zonal Council also includes Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Puducherry.

  9. Which commission suggested the idea of a 'localised emergency'?

    1. Sarkaria Commission
    2. Rajamannar Committee
    3. Punchhi Commission
    4. Finance Commission
    Answer

    C. Punchhi Commission

    It said emergency could be limited to a district or part of a State.

  10. The Supreme Court case that placed limits on the use of Article 356 and made it open to judicial review is

    1. S. R. Bommai v. Union of India
    2. Minerva Mills v. Union of India
    3. Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India
    4. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala
    Answer

    A. S. R. Bommai v. Union of India

    The Bommai judgment (1994) held a proclamation is reviewable.

  11. The Sarkaria Commission recommended that the Governor should be

    1. a serving Union Minister
    2. elected by the Legislature
    3. a retired Chief Minister of the same State
    4. an eminent person from outside the State
    Answer

    D. an eminent person from outside the State

    Also not recently active in politics.

  12. The Planning Commission was replaced by the NITI Aayog on

    1. 2 October 2016
    2. 15 August 2014
    3. 26 January 1950
    4. 1 January 2015
    Answer

    D. 1 January 2015

    NITI Aayog is meant to promote cooperative federalism.

  13. The Finance Commission is constituted under which Article?

    1. Article 263
    2. Article 280
    3. Article 324
    4. Article 112
    Answer

    B. Article 280

    It recommends the distribution of central taxes between the Centre and States.

  14. The Tenth Schedule of the Constitution deals with

    1. Panchayats
    2. Languages
    3. disqualification on grounds of defection
    4. Land reforms
    Answer

    C. disqualification on grounds of defection

    It was added by the 52nd Amendment, 1985.

  15. The Tenth Schedule was inserted by which Amendment?

    1. 52nd
    2. 44th
    3. 61st
    4. 42nd
    Answer

    A. 52nd

    The 52nd Amendment (1985) introduced the anti-defection law.

  16. Which Amendment removed the exception for a split of one-third of a legislature party?

    1. 73rd Amendment
    2. 52nd Amendment
    3. 101st Amendment
    4. 91st Amendment, 2003
    Answer

    D. 91st Amendment, 2003

    After the 91st Amendment only a two-thirds merger is protected.

  17. Under the Tenth Schedule, a merger is protected when at least how much of the legislature party agrees?

    1. Three-fourths
    2. One-third
    3. Two-thirds
    4. One-half
    Answer

    C. Two-thirds

    Merger of the original party with another needs two-thirds agreement.

  18. Under the Tenth Schedule, a party's whip violation is not punished if the party condones it within

    1. 30 days
    2. 15 days
    3. 60 days
    4. 7 days
    Answer

    B. 15 days

    Disqualification does not apply if the party condones within 15 days.

  19. Who decides a disqualification petition under the Tenth Schedule?

    1. The Speaker or Chairman of the House
    2. The Election Commission
    3. The President directly
    4. The Chief Justice of India
    Answer

    A. The Speaker or Chairman of the House

    Their decision is open to judicial review.

  20. In which case did the Supreme Court uphold the Tenth Schedule but allow judicial review of the Speaker's decision?

    1. S. P. Gupta case
    2. Raj Narain case
    3. Lily Thomas v. Union of India
    4. Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu
    Answer

    D. Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu

    The 1992 judgment struck down the paragraph barring court review.

  21. The 91st Amendment limits the Council of Ministers to what percent of the House?

    1. 15 percent
    2. 20 percent
    3. 25 percent
    4. 10 percent
    Answer

    A. 15 percent

    A State must have at least 12 Ministers.

  22. A nominated member of a House becomes disqualified if he or she joins a political party after

    1. the first session ends
    2. six months of taking seat
    3. the next election
    4. one year of taking seat
    Answer

    B. six months of taking seat

    Nominated members can join a party only within six months.

  23. Which Act governs the registration of political parties with the Election Commission?

    1. Constitution (Tenth Schedule) Act
    2. Societies Registration Act
    3. Representation of the People Act, 1951
    4. Companies Act, 2013
    Answer

    C. Representation of the People Act, 1951

    Section 29A provides for registration.

  24. The voting age in India was reduced from 21 to 18 by the

    1. 73rd Amendment
    2. 61st Amendment
    3. 91st Amendment
    4. 42nd Amendment
    Answer

    B. 61st Amendment

    It was passed in 1988.

  25. NOTA (None of the Above) was introduced in India following a judgment in

    1. Kihoto Hollohan case
    2. Lily Thomas v. Union of India
    3. Bommai case
    4. PUCL v. Union of India
    Answer

    D. PUCL v. Union of India

    The Court's 2013 order introduced NOTA.

  26. The Supreme Court judgment in Lily Thomas (2013) relates to

    1. voting age
    2. party symbols
    3. disqualification of legislators on conviction
    4. NOTA
    Answer

    C. disqualification of legislators on conviction

    Convicted legislators with two years or more jail are disqualified at once.

  27. The Association for Democratic Reforms (2002) judgment led to

    1. disclosure of criminal, asset and education details of candidates
    2. lowering of voting age
    3. VVPAT slips
    4. State funding of elections
    Answer

    A. disclosure of criminal, asset and education details of candidates

    Candidates file affidavits at nomination.

  28. Which committee, formed in 1998, examined State funding of elections?

    1. Indrajit Gupta Committee
    2. Tarkunde Committee
    3. Dinesh Goswami Committee
    4. Vohra Committee
    Answer

    A. Indrajit Gupta Committee

    It supported partial State funding in kind.

  29. The Vohra Committee (1993) examined

    1. voting machines
    2. the nexus between crime and politics
    3. Centre-State tax sharing
    4. Governor's role
    Answer

    B. the nexus between crime and politics

    Its report looked at criminalisation of politics.

  30. Superintendence, direction and control of elections is vested in the Election Commission by

    1. Article 356
    2. Article 280
    3. Article 324
    4. Article 326
    Answer

    C. Article 324

    Article 324 creates the Election Commission.

  31. Consider the statements: 1. The Rajamannar Committee was appointed by the Union Government. 2. The Sarkaria Commission recommended a permanent Inter-State Council. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Rajamannar was appointed by Tamil Nadu.

  32. Consider the statements on the Tenth Schedule: 1. It was added by the 52nd Amendment. 2. A split of one-third of a legislature party is still protected. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The split exception was removed in 2003.

  33. Consider the statements: 1. Zonal Councils are chaired by the Union Home Minister. 2. The Inter-State Council is chaired by the President. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Inter-State Council is chaired by the Prime Minister.

  34. Consider the statements: 1. The Punchhi Commission reported in the 1970s. 2. The Sarkaria Commission reported in 1988. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Punchhi reported in 2010.

  35. Consider the statements: 1. NOTA came through a Supreme Court judgment. 2. The voting age was lowered by the 61st Amendment. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  36. Consider the statements on the Speaker's role under the Tenth Schedule: 1. The Speaker decides disqualification. 2. The decision cannot be reviewed by any court. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Court may review the decision after Kihoto Hollohan.

  37. Consider the statements: 1. An independent member joining a party after election is disqualified. 2. A whip violation is always punished even if condoned within 15 days. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Condoned violations are not disqualified.

  38. Consider the statements: 1. The Planning Commission was replaced by NITI Aayog. 2. NITI Aayog is a constitutional body under Article 263. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    NITI Aayog is created by a Government resolution, not a constitutional body.

  39. A legislator elected on a party ticket votes against the party whip in the House without permission, and the party does not forgive him. What follows?

    1. Fine imposed by the Speaker
    2. Nothing; Whips are not binding
    3. Immediate dismissal by the Election Commission
    4. Disqualification under the Tenth Schedule
    Answer

    D. Disqualification under the Tenth Schedule

    Voting against a whip without permission and without condonation is a ground.

  40. Two-thirds of a party's members in the House agree to merge with another party. Under the Tenth Schedule the members are

    1. fined
    2. disqualified
    3. suspended for six months
    4. not disqualified
    Answer

    D. not disqualified

    A two-thirds merger is protected.

  41. A State wants an inclusive forum with the Prime Minister and Chief Ministers to discuss common issues. Which body fits?

    1. Finance Commission
    2. Election Commission
    3. Inter-State Council
    4. Zonal Council
    Answer

    C. Inter-State Council

    It is under Article 263 and chaired by the Prime Minister.

  42. Match: (1) Sarkaria (2) Punchhi (3) Rajamannar with (a) 2007 (b) 1969 (c) 1983. Select the correct pairing.

    1. 1-c, 2-b, 3-a
    2. 1-b, 2-c, 3-a
    3. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
    4. 1-c, 2-a, 3-b
    Answer

    D. 1-c, 2-a, 3-b

    Sarkaria 1983, Punchhi 2007, Rajamannar 1969.

  43. Which of these is NOT a constitutional body?

    1. Finance Commission
    2. Election Commission
    3. Zonal Council
    4. Union Public Service Commission
    Answer

    C. Zonal Council

    Zonal Councils are statutory; the others are constitutional.

  44. Which Commission suggested that the Governor should have a fixed five-year term and be appointed after consulting the State Chief Minister?

    1. Election Commission
    2. Finance Commission
    3. Law Commission
    4. Sarkaria Commission
    Answer

    D. Sarkaria Commission

    Sarkaria made these suggestions on the Governor.

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