Indian Constitution — Basic Features, Preamble and Schedules
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Why This Chapter Matters
Indian Polity, and the Constitution in particular, is a mainstay of General Awareness in both SSC GD and RPF Constable exams, and this chapter builds the essential foundation: how the Constitution was made, what the Preamble says, and how the Schedules organise the document. Unlike History, where facts are scattered across centuries, the Constitution is a single, internally consistent document — once you understand its basic structure, individual facts (word counts, dates, numbers of Articles and Schedules) become far easier to retain and recall correctly under exam pressure.
The Making of the Constitution
The idea of a Constituent Assembly to frame India's Constitution was first proposed by M.N. Roy in 1934 and later formally demanded by the Indian National Congress. It was ultimately constituted under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The Constituent Assembly held its first meeting on 9 December 1946, with Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha as the temporary/interim chairman; Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the permanent President of the Constituent Assembly shortly after. Members of the Assembly were indirectly elected by the members of the Provincial Legislative Assemblies.
Key Committees of the Constituent Assembly
| Committee | Chairman |
|---|---|
| Drafting Committee | Dr. B.R. Ambedkar |
| Union Constitution Committee | Jawaharlal Nehru |
| Union Powers Committee | Jawaharlal Nehru |
| Provincial Constitution Committee | Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel |
| Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities, etc. | Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel |
| Steering Committee | Dr. Rajendra Prasad |
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, as Chairman of the Drafting Committee, is widely regarded as the chief architect (the "Father of the Indian Constitution") for his central role in shaping the final text, though the Constitution was, of course, the product of collective deliberation by the entire Assembly over nearly three years.
Key Dates in the Making of the Constitution
| Event | Date |
|---|---|
| First meeting of the Constituent Assembly | 9 December 1946 |
| Objectives Resolution moved by Jawaharlal Nehru | 13 December 1946 |
| Constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly | 26 November 1949 |
| Constitution came into force (commencement) | 26 January 1950 |
The Constituent Assembly took 2 years, 11 months and 18 days to complete the drafting of the Constitution, holding eleven sessions in total. The date 26 January was deliberately chosen for the Constitution's commencement to honour "Purna Swaraj Day," the day the Indian National Congress had pledged complete independence at its Lahore Session in 1929/observed from 26 January 1930. 26 November is now observed annually in India as "Constitution Day" (Samvidhan Divas), while 26 January is celebrated as Republic Day.
Sources of the Indian Constitution
The Indian Constitution is often described as a "bag of borrowings," drawing provisions and features from several other countries' constitutions while adapting them to Indian conditions.
| Country | Features Borrowed |
|---|---|
| United Kingdom | Parliamentary system of government, rule of law, law-making procedure, single citizenship |
| United States | Fundamental Rights, independence of judiciary, judicial review, the post of Vice-President |
| Ireland | Directive Principles of State Policy, nomination of members to Rajya Sabha |
| Canada | Federal system with a strong Centre, residuary powers vested in the Centre |
| Australia | Concurrent List, freedom of trade and commerce |
| Weimar Constitution of Germany | Provisions on suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency |
| South Africa | Procedure for amendment of the Constitution |
| Government of India Act, 1935 | Federal scheme, office of Governor, administrative details — the single largest source |
Key Features of the Indian Constitution
- Longest written constitution in the world — as originally adopted, it contained 395 Articles divided into 22 Parts and 8 Schedules; after subsequent amendments, it now has more Articles, Parts and Schedules than at the time of adoption.
- Federal system with unitary features — often described as "quasi-federal" or "federal in form, unitary in spirit," since it grants significant powers to the Union, including emergency provisions that can override state autonomy.
- Parliamentary form of government — both at the Union and State levels, with a nominal head of state (President/Governor) and real executive power resting with the Council of Ministers responsible to the legislature.
- Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles — a combination of justiciable rights (enforceable in courts) and non-justiciable guiding principles for governance, covered in the next chapter of this book.
- Single, integrated judiciary — one hierarchy of courts (Supreme Court, High Courts, subordinate courts) applying both Union and State laws, unlike the dual court systems of some other federations.
- Single citizenship — unlike some federations (such as the United States), India provides for a single, common citizenship regardless of the state a person resides in.
- Universal adult franchise — the Constitution granted the right to vote to all adult citizens from the outset, a bold step given the widespread illiteracy at the time.
- Independent judiciary and judicial review — courts, particularly the Supreme Court, have the power to review and strike down laws or executive actions that violate the Constitution.
- Secular state — the Constitution does not establish any state religion and guarantees freedom of religion to all citizens; the word "secular" was explicitly added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment (1976).
The Preamble
The Preamble is the introductory statement to the Constitution, setting out its guiding philosophy, objectives and the source of its authority. It is often called the "identity card" or "soul" of the Constitution, though the Supreme Court has clarified through various judgments (notably the Kesavananda Bharati case, 1973) that while the Preamble is part of the Constitution, it is not by itself enforceable in a court of law in the way that a Fundamental Right is.
Text and Key Terms of the Preamble
The Preamble declares India to be a "SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC" and secures to all its citizens: JUSTICE (social, economic and political); LIBERTY (of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship); EQUALITY (of status and of opportunity); and to promote among them all FRATERNITY, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation.
- Sovereign — India is internally and externally free, with no external power controlling its government.
- Socialist — added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976; commits the state to reducing inequality of income, status and opportunity (India's approach is generally understood as democratic socialism, not state ownership of all means of production).
- Secular — also added by the 42nd Amendment, 1976; the state treats all religions equally and does not have an official state religion.
- Democratic — government derives its authority from the will of the people, expressed through periodic, free and fair elections.
- Republic — the head of state (the President) is elected, directly or indirectly, rather than a hereditary monarch.
The Preamble was itself amended only once, by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, which added the words "Socialist," "Secular" and "Integrity" (the last being added to "unity of the Nation," making it "unity and integrity of the Nation").
Why "Longest Written Constitution" Matters as an Exam Fact
The claim that India has the longest written constitution in the world is one of the most frequently asked one-line facts in this entire subject area, so it is worth understanding precisely what it means. Unlike the short, framework-style constitutions of countries such as the United States (seven Articles in its original form) or Australia, the Indian Constitution deliberately went into exhaustive administrative and procedural detail, partly because its framers wanted to avoid ambiguity in a vast, diverse country still finding its institutional footing, and partly because it absorbed so much detailed material directly from the Government of India Act, 1935. This is also why the Constitution has needed frequent amendment over the decades — a document with this much granular detail inevitably requires periodic updating as governance needs evolve, in contrast to shorter constitutions that leave more room for interpretation without formal amendment.
The Twelve Schedules of the Constitution
The original Constitution had 8 Schedules; four more have been added over time through amendments, bringing the current total to 12. Schedules contain lists, tables and additional details that supplement the main body of Articles.
| Schedule | Subject Matter |
|---|---|
| First Schedule | Names of States and Union Territories and their territorial extent |
| Second Schedule | Salaries, allowances and privileges of the President, Governors, Speaker, Judges, CAG and other officials |
| Third Schedule | Forms of oaths and affirmations for various offices (Ministers, MPs, MLAs, Judges, etc.) |
| Fourth Schedule | Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) to States and Union Territories |
| Fifth Schedule | Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes (excluding Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram) |
| Sixth Schedule | Administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram |
| Seventh Schedule | Division of powers between Union and States — Union List, State List, and Concurrent List |
| Eighth Schedule | List of officially recognised languages of India (originally 14, now 22) |
| Ninth Schedule | Certain laws and regulations protected from judicial review (added by the First Amendment, 1951) |
| Tenth Schedule | Anti-defection provisions relating to disqualification of MPs/MLAs on grounds of defection (added by the 52nd Amendment, 1985) |
| Eleventh Schedule | Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats (added by the 73rd Amendment, 1992) |
| Twelfth Schedule | Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities (added by the 74th Amendment, 1992) |
The Seventh Schedule — The Three Lists
The Seventh Schedule is one of the most frequently tested schedules, since it divides legislative subjects between the Union and the States.
- Union List — subjects on which only Parliament can legislate, such as Defence, Foreign Affairs, Railways, Banking and Currency; originally had 97 subjects (now fewer, following reorganisation over the years).
- State List — subjects on which only State Legislatures can ordinarily legislate, such as Police, Public Health, Agriculture and Local Government; originally had 66 subjects.
- Concurrent List — subjects on which both Parliament and State Legislatures can legislate, such as Education, Forests, Marriage and Divorce, and Criminal Law; originally had 47 subjects; in case of conflict between a Union law and a State law on the same Concurrent List subject, the Union law generally prevails.
Important Articles Every Aspirant Should Know
Beyond the Preamble and Schedules, certain individual Articles come up repeatedly in GS papers because they define the essential character of the Indian state. It is worth memorising these as standalone facts even before studying Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles in detail in the next chapter.
| Article | Subject Matter |
|---|---|
| Article 1 | Name and territory of the Union — "India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States" |
| Article 5-11 | Citizenship (at the commencement of the Constitution) |
| Article 14 | Right to Equality before law |
| Article 19 | Right to six freedoms (speech, assembly, association, movement, residence, profession) |
| Article 21 | Right to Life and Personal Liberty |
| Article 32 | Right to Constitutional Remedies — the right to approach the Supreme Court directly to enforce Fundamental Rights; called by Ambedkar the "heart and soul" of the Constitution |
| Article 51A | Fundamental Duties of citizens |
| Article 74 | Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President |
| Article 76 | Attorney General of India |
| Article 79 | Constitution of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) |
| Article 148 | Comptroller and Auditor General of India |
| Article 324 | Election Commission of India |
| Article 352-360 | Emergency provisions (National, State/President's Rule, Financial Emergency) |
| Article 370 | Special provisions for Jammu and Kashmir (abrogated in practice in August 2019) |
The Eighth Schedule — Officially Recognised Languages
The Eighth Schedule originally listed 14 languages when the Constitution came into force in 1950: Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya (Odia), Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Over the decades, further languages have been added through constitutional amendments — Sindhi (1967), Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali (1992, by the 71st Amendment), and Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali (2003, by the 92nd Amendment) — bringing the current total to 22 scheduled languages. Hindi in the Devanagari script is recognised under Article 343 as the official language of the Union, with English continuing in use for official purposes alongside it.
Parts of the Constitution — A Quick Overview
The Constitution is divided into Parts, each dealing with a broad theme. While the exact numbering has shifted slightly with amendments, the major Parts commonly asked about include: Part III (Fundamental Rights), Part IV (Directive Principles of State Policy), Part IVA (Fundamental Duties, added by the 42nd Amendment, 1976), Part V (the Union), Part VI (the States), Part IX (Panchayats, added by the 73rd Amendment), Part IXA (Municipalities, added by the 74th Amendment), and Part XX (Amendment of the Constitution, containing Article 368).
Amendment of the Constitution — Article 368
Article 368 lays down the procedure for amending the Constitution, which can broadly happen in three ways: by a simple majority of Parliament (for certain provisions not requiring special procedure); by a special majority of Parliament (a majority of the total membership of each House, and a majority of two-thirds of members present and voting); and by a special majority of Parliament combined with ratification by at least half of the State Legislatures (for provisions affecting the federal structure, such as election of the President, distribution of legislative powers, or representation of States in Parliament). This graded flexibility is often cited as a defining strength of the Indian Constitution, balancing rigidity (to protect core values) with flexibility (to adapt to changing needs).
The Basic Structure Doctrine
While Article 368 gives Parliament wide powers to amend the Constitution, the Supreme Court, in the landmark Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case (1973), held that Parliament cannot use its amending power to alter the "basic structure" of the Constitution — certain core features considered so fundamental that no amendment, however procedurally valid, may destroy them. The judgment did not lay down an exhaustive list of what constitutes the basic structure, but subsequent cases have included within it, among other things, the supremacy of the Constitution, the rule of law, the independence of the judiciary, federalism, secularism, and the principle of free and fair elections. This doctrine remains one of the most important checks on the amending power of Parliament and is frequently referenced in polity questions at a conceptual level, even though the exam usually asks for the case name and year rather than the detailed legal reasoning.
Constituent Assembly — Additional Facts Worth Remembering
- The Constituent Assembly was constituted under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946 and was not directly elected by the general public — its members were elected by the members of the Provincial Legislative Assemblies, themselves elected on a limited franchise under the Government of India Act, 1935.
- The Assembly functioned both as a body drafting the Constitution and, until the first general elections were held (1951-52), as India's provisional Parliament.
- Prominent members besides Ambedkar, Nehru and Patel included Dr. Rajendra Prasad (President of the Assembly and later India's first President), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, K.M. Munshi, Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar, N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, and Sarojini Naidu.
- The Constitution was handwritten and calligraphed (not printed) in both Hindi and English, and its original copies are preserved in a special helium-filled case in the Library of the Parliament of India.
- The Constituent Assembly had members from a wide cross-section of Indian society, though it operated during and after the traumatic backdrop of Partition, which significantly shaped debates on citizenship, minority rights and the nature of the Indian state.
Key Facts at a Glance
- The Constituent Assembly first met on 9 December 1946; Dr. Rajendra Prasad was its permanent President.
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar chaired the Drafting Committee and is regarded as the chief architect of the Constitution.
- The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 (Constitution Day) and came into force on 26 January 1950 (Republic Day).
- The single largest source of the Constitution is the Government of India Act, 1935.
- The original Constitution had 395 Articles, 22 Parts and 8 Schedules; it now has 12 Schedules.
- The words "Socialist," "Secular" and "Integrity" were added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.
- The Preamble declares India a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic, securing Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
- The Seventh Schedule contains the Union List, State List and Concurrent List, dividing legislative powers.
- The Eighth Schedule lists 22 officially recognised languages (originally 14).
- Article 368 lays down the procedure for constitutional amendment.
Practice MCQs
- When did the Constituent Assembly of India first meet?
(a) 26 January 1950 (b) 26 November 1949 (c) 9 December 1946 (d) 15 August 1947
Answer: (c) 9 December 1946. Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha presided over this first meeting as interim chairman. - Who chaired the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly?
(a) Jawaharlal Nehru (b) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (c) Dr. Rajendra Prasad (d) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Answer: (d) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. He is widely regarded as the chief architect of the Indian Constitution. - On which date was the Indian Constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly?
(a) 15 August 1947 (b) 26 January 1950 (c) 26 November 1949 (d) 2 October 1949
Answer: (c) 26 November 1949. This date is now observed as Constitution Day. - The Indian Constitution came into force on which date?
(a) 26 January 1950 (b) 26 November 1949 (c) 15 August 1947 (d) 1 January 1950
Answer: (a) 26 January 1950. This date is celebrated annually as Republic Day. - Which act is regarded as the single largest source of the Indian Constitution?
(a) Government of India Act, 1935 (b) Indian Independence Act, 1947 (c) Regulating Act, 1773 (d) Government of India Act, 1919
Answer: (a) Government of India Act, 1935. It contributed the federal scheme, office of Governor, and much administrative detail. - From which country's constitution did India borrow the concept of Directive Principles of State Policy?
(a) United States (b) United Kingdom (c) Ireland (d) Canada
Answer: (c) Ireland. The Directive Principles are found in Part IV of the Indian Constitution. - Which words were added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976?
(a) Sovereign, Democratic (b) Socialist, Secular, Integrity (c) Republic, Justice (d) Liberty, Equality
Answer: (b) Socialist, Secular, Integrity. The Preamble was amended only this one time, in 1976. - How many Schedules did the original Indian Constitution contain?
(a) 8 (b) 10 (c) 12 (d) 22
Answer: (a) 8. Four more Schedules were added later, bringing the current total to 12. - The Ninth Schedule of the Constitution, added by the First Amendment (1951), deals with which subject?
(a) Anti-defection law (b) Powers of Panchayats (c) Laws protected from judicial review (d) Official languages
Answer: (c) Laws protected from judicial review. It was originally intended to shield land reform laws from court challenge. - Which Schedule of the Constitution contains the Union List, State List and Concurrent List?
(a) Fourth Schedule (b) Seventh Schedule (c) Eighth Schedule (d) Tenth Schedule
Answer: (b) Seventh Schedule. This Schedule divides legislative subjects between the Union and the States. - The Tenth Schedule of the Constitution, added by the 52nd Amendment (1985), deals with which subject?
(a) Panchayati Raj (b) Municipalities (c) Anti-defection law (d) Official languages
Answer: (c) Anti-defection law. It disqualifies MPs/MLAs from their seats on grounds of defection. - Which Article of the Constitution lays down the procedure for constitutional amendment?
(a) Article 356 (b) Article 368 (c) Article 32 (d) Article 370
Answer: (b) Article 368. It provides for amendment by simple majority, special majority, or special majority with state ratification, depending on the provision. - The "Basic Structure" doctrine, which limits Parliament's power to amend the Constitution, emerged from which landmark case?
(a) Golaknath case (b) Kesavananda Bharati case (c) Minerva Mills case (d) Maneka Gandhi case
Answer: (b) Kesavananda Bharati case (1973). The Supreme Court held that Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the Constitution. - How many languages were originally listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution in 1950?
(a) 14 (b) 18 (c) 22 (d) 8
Answer: (a) 14. The list has since been expanded to 22 languages through various amendments.