Origins
Originating from the Sangam literature, the Cholas are an ancient South Indian dynasty that marked their place in the annals of Indian history. Ashoka’s edicts provide significant early references, marking them as South-Indian allies. Despite the shroud over the post-Sangam era, it is the reign of Vijayalaya Chola (850-871 CE) that marked a distinct phase of the Chola dynasty. He earned a significant place in the history by re-establishing the dynasty as an imperial power by capturing the fertile Kaveri delta region from the Muttaraiyar clan.
Prominent Kings of the Chola Dynasty
1. Vijayalaya Chola (847 – 871 CE): The founder of the imperial Chola dynasty, Vijayalaya Chola, laid the foundation of the dynasty’s greatness by seizing the Kaveri delta region from the Muttaraiyar. His reign was also significant for the construction of the revered temple of the goddess Nishumbhasoodini in Tanjavur. He was a feudatory of the Pallavas.
2. Aditya Chola (891 – 907 CE): Aditya Chola is well-known for defeating the Pallava overlord, Aparajitavarman, gaining control over Tondaimandalam and Kongu country. His reign was marked by religious contributions, with the construction of Shiva Temples on both banks of the Kaveri river.
3. Parantaka I (957 – 973 CE): Parantaka I is celebrated for his military victories and temple constructions. He triumphed over the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon at the Battle of Vellur. However, he faced a setback at the hands of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III at the Battle of Takkolam, resulting in the Rashtrakutas taking over Tondaimandalam. Despite this, he is remembered for adding a golden roof to the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram and for the Uthiramerur inscriptions, which provide detailed information about village administration under the Cholas.
4. Parantaka II/Sundara Chola (973 – 985 CE): Sundara Chola is known for his strategic military prowess. He invaded Sri Lanka, reclaiming parts of Tondaimandalam, establishing his rule over a vast territory.
5. Uttama Chola (985 – 1014 CE): Uttama Chola, during his reign, managed to recover most of Tondaimandalam, marking a successful phase of the Chola rule.
6. Rajaraja I/Arumolivarman (985 – 1014 CE): The reign of Rajaraja I and his son, Rajendra I, signified the peak of the Chola empire. Known for his military and administrative accomplishments, Rajaraja I led successful campaigns against the Cheras, Pandyas, and the western Chalukyas of Kalyani. His legacy also includes the renowned Rajarajeshwara temple, also known as the Brihadeshwara temple, in Tanjore.
7. Rajendra I (c. 1014 – 1044 CE): Rajendra I, also known as Pandita Cholan, exhibited his military prowess in his father’s campaigns, continuing aggressive conquests and expansions. His notable achievements include bringing Sri Lanka under Chola rule, restoring Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya regions, and leading successful naval expeditions.
8. Rajadhiraja (1044 – 1052 CE): Known as Jayamkonda Chola, Rajadhiraja is celebrated for his valor as he personally fought alongside his soldiers, meeting his end on the battlefield during the Battle of Koppam against Someshwar, the western Chalukyan king.
9. Rajendra II (1054 – 1063 CE): Rajendra II achieved a notable victory over Someshwar and established a Jaystambha at Kolhapur, marking his military prowess.
10. Virarajendra (1063 – 1067 CE): Virarajendra defeated Someshwar II and established a Vedic college, marking his reign with educational contributions.
11. Athirajendra (1067 – 1070 CE): Although Athirajendra’s reign was brief, it was marked by significant military action in suppressing a rebellion.
12. Kulottunga I (1070 – 1122 CE): Kulottunga Chola I, the grandson of Rajendra Chola, left a distinct mark by abolishing many taxes and maintaining friendly relations with foreign kingdoms like Sri Vijaya and China. His reign also marked the union of the Vengi kingdom of Chalukyas with the Chola empire.
13. Rajendra III: Rajendra III, the last Chola king, saw the downfall of the Chola Empire after being defeated by Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I. His reign marked the rise of the Pandya and Hoysala kingdoms.
With a lineage of powerful kings, the Chola dynasty’s grandeur and richness have etched an indelible mark in Indian history. Their contribution to the political, social, and cultural realms has significantly shaped the Indian subcontinent’s past and present.
Administration
Under the Cholas, the southern region of India saw a unified single governing force, marking the establishment of a robust monarchy. The Chola kingdom was divided into provinces, known as ‘mandalams,’ each governed by its respective governor. These mandalams were further divided into districts called ‘nadus,’ comprised of tehsils.
The administration allowed each village to function as a self-governing unit. In a testament to their support for art, literature, and drama, the Cholas invested heavily in constructing numerous temples and complexes adorned with sculptures and paintings. The king held central authority, making significant decisions and overseeing the kingdom’s governance. Tax-free villages, known as ‘Agrahars,’ were donated to Brahmins and allowed some autonomy. Inscriptions from 902 CE describe instances of villages headed by women, like Bittaya, who headed Bharangiyur.
Society and Religion
The caste system was prevalent in Chola society, with the Paraiyar, or untouchables, often living in miserable conditions. Under the Cholas, two prominent groups of Bhakti poets, the Nayanars and Alwars, emerged, advocating salvation through deity devotion. Their works were compiled into a revered collection known as the “Tirumurais,” regarded as the “Fifth Veda.”
Major caste divisions included the Valangai (mainly agricultural groups) and the Idangai (artisans and traders). Chola reign saw the thriving of Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Royal families and wealthy merchants generously donated to temples, with temple finances and maintenance managed by the Brahmana Sabha, which had close ties with the imperial court.
Economy
The primarily agrarian Chola economy saw the reclamation of forest land, the construction of irrigation tanks, and diversified crops. The industrial sector also witnessed significant growth. Kanchipuram became a prominent weaving center, Kudamukku was known for betel nut and areca nut cultivation, metal works, textiles, and coin minting. The Chola kings fostered strong commercial ties with Southeast Asia and China, importing Arabian horses to strengthen their cavalry.
Art and Architecture
Royal patronage for arts was a notable feature of the Chola reign. Chola paintings and bronze works from this era have been discovered in Chola temples, including the famous Brihadeeswara Temple. The Chola mastery of the Dravidian style of art and architecture is reflected in their grand temples. Significant Chola temples include the Big Temple in Tanjore, constructed by Rajaraja I, and the Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, erected by Rajendra I.
Education
Education was highly valued during the Chola period, with various educational institutions thriving alongside temples and maths that served as learning centers. These institutions offered courses in subjects like mathematics and medicine, in addition to teaching the Vedas and Epics. The era marked the zenith of Tamil literature, with notable works like “Sivakasintamani,” “Ramayana,” and “Periyapuranam.” This period also saw the emergence of important works on Tamil grammar, contributing significantly to its understanding and development.
With their distinctive contributions across administration, society, religion, economy, art, architecture, and education, the Cholas shaped the cultural and historical landscape of southern India, leaving a profound legacy.