13. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919 (MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD REFORMS / "MONT-FORD REFORMS")

13. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919 (MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD REFORMS / "MONT-FORD REFORMS")

Background: Named after Secretary of State Edwin Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford. Montagu's August Declaration (1917) had promised "increasing association of Indians in every branch of administration and gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to progressive realisation of responsible government in India."

Key Provisions

• Introduced "Dyarchy" (dual government) in the provinces — the most significant and most-tested feature:
  • Provincial subjects divided into two categories:
    • "Transferred" subjects: administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the Legislative Council (e.g., education, health, local self-government, agriculture, excise)
    • "Reserved" subjects: administered by the Governor and his Executive Council, NOT responsible to the legislature (e.g., law and order/police, finance, land revenue, irrigation, justice)
• Introduced Bicameralism (two houses) at the Centre for the first time: created the Council of State (Upper House) and the Central Legislative Assembly (Lower House).
• Introduced (indirect) direct elections on a limited franchise (based on property, tax, education) for the first time to the central and provincial legislatures.
• Retained separate electorates and extended communal representation to Sikhs as well (in addition to Muslims already granted separate electorate in 1909).
• Devolved and demarcated subjects between the Centre and Provinces into two lists — "Central" and "Provincial" subjects — a scheme of division of subjects between Centre and Provinces, forerunner of the federal structure.
• Provided for a statutory commission to be set up after 10 years to review the working of the Act — this became the Simon Commission (1927).
• Extended franchise (right to vote) — about 10% of the population got voting rights.
• Provided that 3 out of 6 members of the Viceroy's Executive Council should be Indian.
• Created the post of High Commissioner for India in London.
• Provided for the establishment of a Public Service Commission in India — led to the creation of the Central Public Service Commission in 1926.
• Separated, for the first time, provincial budgets from the Central budget.

Significance/Impact

• First introduction of the principle of responsible government / dyarchy — though limited to provinces and to "transferred" subjects only.
• Dyarchy proved largely unworkable and unsatisfactory in practice — Ministers in charge of transferred subjects had responsibility without adequate resources (finance remained a "reserved" subject controlled by the Governor), leading to friction; it was later abolished by the Government of India Act, 1935 (dyarchy shifted to the Centre in 1935, and provinces given full autonomy instead).
• First introduction of bicameral legislature at the Centre.
• Widely criticized by Indian nationalists as inadequate — the Indian National Congress at its 1919 special session (Bombay, presided by Hasan Imam) called the reforms "disappointing and unsatisfactory" and demanded effective self-government.
• Simultaneously, the repressive Rowlatt Act (1919) was passed, and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (13 April 1919) occurred, further souring the reception of these reforms.

Why Dyarchy Failed in Practice

• Finance remained a "reserved" subject controlled by the Governor and his Executive Councillors — Indian ministers in charge of "transferred" subjects like education and health had responsibility without adequate funds, since the purse strings stayed with the unelected reserved side.
• The Governor retained overriding/veto powers even over transferred subjects and could act against the advice of ministers in an emergency.
• Ministers in charge of transferred subjects were individually responsible to the legislature but had no collective responsibility as a cabinet, weakening their political authority.
• Frequent friction between "reserved" bureaucratic administration and "transferred" ministerial administration made coordinated governance difficult.
• The scheme was reviewed by the Muddiman Committee (1924), which found dyarchy unworkable, paving the way for its abolition (in the provinces) by the Government of India Act, 1935, which replaced it with full provincial autonomy (dyarchy was then notionally shifted to the Centre, though never actually implemented there either).

Examples of Subjects under Dyarchy (1919)

Key Facts / Quick Revision Points

• Year: 1919; associated with: Edwin Montagu (Sec. of State) & Lord Chelmsford (Viceroy)
• Dyarchy introduced in PROVINCES (transferred vs. reserved subjects) — most tested fact
• Bicameral legislature at Centre introduced for first time: Council of State (Upper) + Central Legislative Assembly (Lower)
• Statutory Commission after 10 years promised → became Simon Commission (1927)
• Separate electorates extended to Sikhs
• 3/6 Viceroy's Executive Council members to be Indian