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Hindu Philosophy and Temple System for APPSC Executive Officer · Chapter 6

Yagnas, Yagams and Dharmas of Life Stages (Ashramas, Samskaras)

What to remember

  • Yajna means sacrifice or offering, usually into fire, with mantras. Rites are of two kinds: Shrauta (based on the Veda, with three fires) and Smarta or Grihya (household rites, with one fire).
  • Four ashramas guide a life: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest-dweller) and Sannyasa (renunciate). Four aims of life (purusharthas) go with them: dharma, artha, kama and moksha.
  • There are sixteen samskaras (sacraments) from conception to the last rites. Upanayana and Vivaha are the best-known.

Yajna, yaga, homa

  • Yajna (Telugu: yagnam, yagam) is a rite in which offerings are made to gods through Agni (fire). Homa and Havan are smaller fire offerings. The word yaga is used for a larger formal sacrifice.
  • The Veda describes the priests: Hotri (Rig), Adhvaryu (Yajur), Udgatri (Sama) and Brahma (Atharva). Large rites use sixteen priests (ritvik).
  • Basic parts of a rite: sankalpa (resolve), invocation of deities, offering of ghee, grain and other items, and the closing blessing and gifts to priests (dakshina).
  • Three sacred fires of a Shrauta rite: Garhapatya (household fire), Ahavaniya (offering fire) and Dakshinagni (southern fire). Setting them up is Agnyadhana.
  • The Bhagavad Gita widens the idea of yajna to include gifts, penance, study and knowledge (jnana yajna) and says that action done without desire is a form of sacrifice.

Kinds of yajna

GroupExamplesNote
Nitya (daily, fixed)Agnihotra, PanchamahayajnaDone every day
Naimittika (occasional)Rites at an eclipse, festival or eventOn a special occasion
Kamya (for a wish)Putrakameshti (for a son); VajapeyaDone to gain a desire
Soma ritesAgnishtoma, JyotishtomaSoma juice offered; Agnishtoma is the basic Soma rite
Royal ritesRajasuya, Ashvamedha, VajapeyaLinked with kings and power
  • Darsha and Purnamasa are the new-moon and full-moon rites.
  • Putrakameshti is the rite King Dasharatha performed in the Ramayana.
  • Ashvamedha is a royal horse sacrifice. Rajasuya is a king's consecration.
  • Shrauta rites need many priests, so they are rare today. Grihya rites are simpler and common in homes and temples.
  • Kalpa Sutras explain the rites: Shrauta Sutras (public rites), Grihya Sutras (home rites) and Dharma Sutras (law).

Five great daily sacrifices (Panchamahayajna)

YajnaOffered toAct
Brahma / Rishi yajnaSagesStudy and teaching of the Veda
Deva yajnaGodsHoma and worship
Pitri yajnaAncestorsTarpana (water offering) and Shraddha
Bhuta yajnaAll beingsBali; feeding animals and birds
Manushya (Nri) yajnaHumansHospitality to guests (atithi)
  • These repay the three debts (rinas): to the gods (Deva rina), to the sages (Rishi rina) and to the ancestors (Pitri rina). Some lists add a debt to humanity.

The four ashramas and four purusharthas

AshramaStageMain duty
BrahmacharyaStudentLearning with a guru, discipline, celibacy
GrihasthaHouseholderMarriage, family, earning, hospitality, daily rites
VanaprasthaRetiringGradual withdrawal; living a simple life; study and meditation
SannyasaRenunciationGiving up possessions; seeking liberation (moksha)
  • Tradition links each stage with roughly one quarter of a 100-year life, but this is a guide, not a rule.
  • Grihastha is called the support of the other three, because it feeds and supports students, retired people and renunciates.
  • Purusharthas: Dharma (duty), Artha (wealth), Kama (desire, legitimate pleasure) and Moksha (freedom). Moksha is the highest aim.
  • Varnashrama dharma means duties linked with the social groups (varna) and the stage of life (ashrama). Sadharana dharma (common duties such as truth, non-violence and self-control) apply to all.

The sixteen samskaras

StageSamskara
Before birth1 Garbhadhana (conception), 2 Pumsavana, 3 Simantonnayana (hair parting)
Infancy and childhood4 Jatakarma (birth rite), 5 Namakarana (naming), 6 Nishkramana (first outing), 7 Annaprashana (first rice), 8 Chudakarana (first haircut), 9 Karnavedha (ear piercing)
Student life10 Vidyarambha (start of letters), 11 Upanayana (sacred thread), 12 Vedarambha (start of Veda study), 13 Keshanta (first shaving) / Godana, 14 Samavartana (return from the guru)
Adult life15 Vivaha (marriage)
End of life16 Antyeshti (last rites)
  • Lists differ slightly between texts. The exam facts are the number sixteen and the main names.
  • Upanayana is the initiation of the child by the teacher. The Gayatri Mantra is taught. It marks the "second birth" (dvija). It is the entry into the Brahmacharya stage.
  • Vivaha begins the Grihastha ashrama. Main parts: Kanyadana (giving the bride), Panigrahana (taking the hand), Agni sakshi (fire as witness) and Saptapadi (seven steps). Marriage is a lifelong religious bond.
  • Antyeshti is the funeral rite. It is followed by rites for the departed such as Pinda offering and Shraddha, in line with the Pitri yajna.

The eight forms of marriage (as listed in the Dharma Shastras)

Brahma, Daiva, Arsha and Prajapatya are called approved forms. Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa and Paishacha are less approved forms. Gandharva is marriage by mutual choice.

Link to temples and Hindu practice

  • Many samskaras are done at temples: naming, first rice (Annaprashana), tonsure (offered at hill temples), ear piercing, and marriage (such as Kalyanotsavam of the deity).
  • Temple priests perform Grihya rites and also Vedic homas, such as the Sudarshana homa and the Ayushya homa, on request.
  • The Endowments Department looks after the places where such rites are done, so a knowledge of the rites helps an Executive Officer to manage services and fees.

Meaning of key terms

  • Sankalpa: the statement of purpose, time and place made at the start of a rite. Dakshina: the fee or gift to the priest. Purnahuti: the final offering that completes a homa.
  • Ritvik is a priest who officiates. Yajamana is the person on whose behalf the rite is done, together with his wife (patni), who has a part in the rite.
  • Ishti is a simple rite for a wish. Soma yaga uses the Soma plant juice. Pashu bandha is an animal rite described in the Veda; today it is done in a symbolic form with rice-flour animal figures in some cases.
  • Agnihotra is offered at sunrise and sunset with milk or ghee to Agni and Surya (and Prajapati).
  • Shraddha is the rite for ancestors; Tarpana is the water offering; Pinda is a ball of cooked rice offered. Mahalaya Paksha is the fortnight kept for ancestors.
  • Yajnopavita is the sacred thread worn after Upanayana. Sandhyavandana is the daily prayer at dawn, noon and dusk, with the Gayatri Mantra.

Dharma in each stage of life

  • Brahmacharya: live with the guru (gurukula), serve the teacher, collect alms, learn the Veda and keep self-control. The Taittiriya Upanishad's graduation advice to the student starts with "speak the truth, practise dharma".
  • Grihastha: marry, raise children, earn by right means, and keep the five daily sacrifices. The householder gives alms and food to the guest, the student, and the poor.
  • Vanaprastha: hand over household duties to the next generation, live in a quiet place and take up study and austerity. A wife may go with the husband.
  • Sannyasa: give up all attachment, carry few things, wander and teach, or live in meditation. The Sannyasi's rite for entering this stage is called Viraja homa in some traditions.
  • Women's samskaras: in many texts, marriage is treated as the main samskara for women, and Vedic study of girls is mentioned in the earlier age.

Exam traps

  • Garhapatya, Ahavaniya and Dakshinagni are the three Shrauta fires; Grihya rites need only one household fire.
  • Panchamahayajna are daily and domestic; Ashvamedha and Rajasuya are royal, rare rites.
  • Pitri yajna is for ancestors; Deva yajna is for gods; Atithi (Manushya) yajna is for guests.
  • Vanaprastha is the third ashrama, not the second; Grihastha is second.
  • Upanayana begins student life; Samavartana closes it; Vivaha begins household life.
  • Putrakameshti was done for a son; Ashvamedha is a horse sacrifice.
  • There are 16 samskaras, but the names in a list may differ. Do not mix with the 8 forms of marriage.
  • Purusharthas are four; the fourth (Moksha) is not an ashrama.

One-liners

  • 1. Yajna means sacrifice or offering to the gods through fire.
  • 2. Agnihotra is a daily fire offering.
  • 3. The Panchamahayajna are five daily duties of a householder.
  • 4. The Hotri is the priest linked with the Rig Veda.
  • 5. The three Shrauta fires are Garhapatya, Ahavaniya and Dakshinagni.
  • 6. There are four ashramas: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sannyasa.
  • 7. The four purusharthas are dharma, artha, kama and moksha.
  • 8. There are sixteen samskaras.
  • 9. Upanayana is the sacred thread ceremony, which teaches the Gayatri Mantra.
  • 10. Saptapadi (seven steps) is a central act of a Hindu wedding.
  • 11. Antyeshti is the last rite.
  • 12. Grihastha is the ashrama that supports the other three.

Practice questions

  1. The word yajna means

    1. a festival procession
    2. sacrifice or offering made with mantras
    3. a period of study
    4. a pilgrimage
    Answer

    B. sacrifice or offering made with mantras

    Yajna is a sacred offering, usually into fire.

  2. How many ashramas are there in the classical scheme?

    1. 3
    2. 4
    3. 5
    4. 8
    Answer

    B. 4

    Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sannyasa.

  3. The second ashrama is

    1. Sannyasa
    2. Brahmacharya
    3. Grihastha
    4. Vanaprastha
    Answer

    C. Grihastha

    Grihastha (householder) comes after student life.

  4. The third ashrama is

    1. Sannyasa
    2. Brahmacharya
    3. Grihastha
    4. Vanaprastha
    Answer

    D. Vanaprastha

    Vanaprastha is the retiring stage.

  5. The last stage of life in the ashrama scheme is

    1. Brahmacharya
    2. Sannyasa
    3. Vanaprastha
    4. Grihastha
    Answer

    B. Sannyasa

    Sannyasa is renunciation.

  6. Which of the four purusharthas is regarded as the highest aim?

    1. Moksha
    2. Dharma
    3. Kama
    4. Artha
    Answer

    A. Moksha

    Moksha, liberation, is the final goal.

  7. How many samskaras are there in the common Shodasha scheme?

    1. 8
    2. 40
    3. 10
    4. 16
    Answer

    D. 16

    Shodasha means sixteen.

  8. The sacred thread ceremony is called

    1. Namakarana
    2. Annaprashana
    3. Upanayana
    4. Chudakarana
    Answer

    C. Upanayana

    Upanayana is the initiation with the sacred thread.

  9. The Gayatri Mantra is formally taught at the

    1. Vivaha
    2. Upanayana
    3. Annaprashana
    4. Namakarana
    Answer

    B. Upanayana

    It is taught at the sacred thread ceremony.

  10. The seven steps taken by the couple in a Hindu wedding are called

    1. Kanyadana
    2. Nishkramana
    3. Panigrahana
    4. Saptapadi
    Answer

    D. Saptapadi

    Saptapadi means seven steps.

  11. Antyeshti is the

    1. last rite at death
    2. first haircut
    3. naming ceremony
    4. first outing
    Answer

    A. last rite at death

    Antyeshti is the funeral rite, the sixteenth samskara.

  12. Annaprashana is the samskara of

    1. first haircut
    2. ear piercing
    3. the first feeding of solid food
    4. naming the child
    Answer

    C. the first feeding of solid food

    It is the rice-feeding ceremony.

  13. Namakarana is the samskara of

    1. the sacred thread
    2. marriage
    3. naming the child
    4. first haircut
    Answer

    C. naming the child

    Namakarana is the naming rite.

  14. Chudakarana is the samskara of

    1. conception
    2. the first haircut (tonsure)
    3. ear piercing
    4. naming
    Answer

    B. the first haircut (tonsure)

    Chudakarana (Choula) is the first tonsure.

  15. Garbhadhana is the samskara linked with

    1. marriage
    2. naming
    3. birth
    4. conception
    Answer

    D. conception

    It is the rite for conception.

  16. Simantonnayana is the rite of

    1. parting the hair of the expectant mother
    2. naming the child
    3. the first outing
    4. marriage
    Answer

    A. parting the hair of the expectant mother

    It is performed during pregnancy.

  17. Which Shrauta fire is the household fire?

    1. Dakshinagni
    2. Ahavaniya
    3. Garhapatya
    4. Vadavagni
    Answer

    C. Garhapatya

    Garhapatya is the household fire, with Ahavaniya and Dakshinagni.

  18. The Putrakameshti yajna in the Ramayana was performed by

    1. Ravana
    2. Dasharatha
    3. Janaka
    4. Sugriva
    Answer

    B. Dasharatha

    King Dasharatha performed it to gain sons.

  19. Ashvamedha is a royal sacrifice involving a

    1. horse
    2. elephant
    3. bull
    4. cow
    Answer

    A. horse

    Ashvamedha is the horse sacrifice.

  20. Rajasuya is a rite of

    1. a householder's daily offering
    2. a student's graduation
    3. a marriage
    4. a king's consecration
    Answer

    D. a king's consecration

    Rajasuya is a royal consecration rite.

  21. The Panchamahayajna are

    1. five kinds of marriage
    2. five stages of life
    3. five royal rites
    4. five daily sacrifices of a householder
    Answer

    D. five daily sacrifices of a householder

    They are five daily duties.

  22. Pitri yajna is directed to the

    1. sages
    2. ancestors
    3. gods
    4. guests
    Answer

    B. ancestors

    It uses Tarpana and Shraddha.

  23. Atithi (Manushya) yajna means

    1. feeding animals
    2. worship of fire
    3. hospitality to guests
    4. study of the Veda
    Answer

    C. hospitality to guests

    Manushya yajna honours guests.

  24. Deva yajna is the offering to

    1. the gods
    2. sages
    3. guests
    4. ancestors
    Answer

    A. the gods

    It is the homa to the gods.

  25. Brahma (Rishi) yajna refers to

    1. water to ancestors
    2. hospitality
    3. study and teaching of the Veda
    4. feeding birds
    Answer

    C. study and teaching of the Veda

    It repays the debt to the sages.

  26. The three debts (rinas) are owed to the gods, the sages and the

    1. kings
    2. ancestors
    3. teachers only
    4. animals
    Answer

    B. ancestors

    They are Deva rina, Rishi rina and Pitri rina.

  27. Dakshina in a yajna is

    1. the gift or fee given to the priests
    2. the fire altar
    3. the final mantra
    4. the sacred thread
    Answer

    A. the gift or fee given to the priests

    Dakshina rewards the priests.

  28. Sankalpa at the start of a rite is

    1. the Soma juice
    2. the fire pit
    3. the final offering
    4. a statement of purpose, time and place
    Answer

    D. a statement of purpose, time and place

    It is the formal resolve.

  29. Agnihotra is

    1. a daily fire offering at sunrise and sunset
    2. a horse sacrifice
    3. a marriage rite
    4. a royal consecration
    Answer

    A. a daily fire offering at sunrise and sunset

    It is a daily Vedic fire rite.

  30. Shrauta rites are based on the

    1. Upanishads
    2. Itihasas
    3. Shrauta Sutras with three sacred fires
    4. Puranas
    Answer

    C. Shrauta Sutras with three sacred fires

    They follow the Vedic Shrauta Sutras.

  31. The Grihya Sutras mainly describe

    1. grammar rules
    2. rules for kings
    3. royal sacrifices
    4. household rites and samskaras
    Answer

    D. household rites and samskaras

    Grihya means domestic.

  32. The Dharma Shastras list how many forms of marriage?

    1. 4
    2. 12
    3. 16
    4. 8
    Answer

    D. 8

    Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Prajapatya, Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa and Paishacha.

  33. The Gandharva form of marriage is by

    1. gift of the bride
    2. mutual choice of the couple
    3. capture
    4. purchase
    Answer

    B. mutual choice of the couple

    Gandharva marriage is by mutual consent.

  34. Which ashrama is said to support the other three?

    1. Brahmacharya
    2. Grihastha
    3. Vanaprastha
    4. Sannyasa
    Answer

    B. Grihastha

    The householder supports students, retirees and renunciates.

  35. The Vanaprastha stage is mainly one of

    1. gradual withdrawal from household life
    2. ruling a kingdom
    3. student life
    4. marriage
    Answer

    A. gradual withdrawal from household life

    Vanaprastha means retiring to a simple life.

  36. The basic Soma rite among the Shrauta yajnas is the

    1. Agnihotra
    2. Darsha
    3. Agnishtoma
    4. Putrakameshti
    Answer

    C. Agnishtoma

    Agnishtoma is the basic Soma sacrifice.

  37. Sandhyavandana is

    1. a form of marriage
    2. a royal rite
    3. a funeral rite
    4. the daily prayer at dawn, noon and dusk
    Answer

    D. the daily prayer at dawn, noon and dusk

    It is the daily junction prayer with the Gayatri Mantra.

  38. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Upanayana marks entry into the student stage. 2. Vivaha begins the householder stage.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  39. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. The Panchamahayajna are royal sacrifices. 2. Ashvamedha is performed by kings.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Panchamahayajna are daily household duties.

  40. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. There are sixteen samskaras. 2. There are eight ashramas.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    There are four ashramas.

  41. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Vanaprastha is the first ashrama. 2. Antyeshti is a marriage rite.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    Brahmacharya is first; Antyeshti is the last rite.

  42. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Shrauta rites need only one household fire. 2. Grihya rites are home rites.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Shrauta rites use three fires.

  43. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Dharma means duty. 2. Kama means legitimate desire.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are purusharthas.

  44. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Moksha is the highest purushartha. 2. Artha means liberation.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Artha means wealth.

  45. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Pitri yajna is offered to the guests. 2. Tarpana is the water offering to ancestors.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Pitri yajna is for ancestors.

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