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Governance, Ethics, Law and International Relations — Group-I · Chapter 6

Ethics and Human Interface

What to remember

  • Ethics is the study of what is right and wrong in human conduct; morality is the personal or social code of right and wrong; law is the rule enforced by the State.
  • Human actions are shaped by family, society, education, religion, law, conscience and the situation; their consequences reach the doer, others and the society.
  • Great leaders teach by example: Gandhi on means and ends, Ambedkar on justice, Kalam on service, Shastri on responsibility.

Essence and dimensions of ethics

Ethics (from the Greek ethos, character) asks "How should a person act?". The word "morals" comes from the Latin mores (customs). In daily use both words are close. Ethics is more often a theory or a code; morality is the practice.

Ethics has several branches:

  • Normative ethics: tells what we should do (the three big theories below).
  • Meta-ethics: asks what "good" and "right" mean.
  • Applied ethics: applies ideas to real fields such as medicine, business and administration.
  • Descriptive ethics: studies what people actually believe and do.

Ethics differs from law. A law can be unjust, and an act can be legal and still unethical. A law has a penalty; ethics depends on conscience and social approval. In administration, laws and rules give the minimum standard, and ethics fill the gaps.

TheoryMain thinkerCore ideaWeak point
Deontology (duty-based)Immanuel KantAct by duty; follow the categorical imperative: act only on a rule you would want to be universalRigid; may ignore results
Consequentialism / UtilitarianismJeremy Bentham, J.S. MillRight act gives the greatest happiness to the greatest numberMinority may suffer
Virtue ethicsAristotleBuild good character; virtue is the mean between two extremesDoes not give a clear rule for action
Justice as fairnessJohn RawlsDecide rules behind a "veil of ignorance"; protect the least advantagedHard to apply in practice

Indian thought adds the Bhagavad Gita's idea of nishkama karma: do your duty without attachment to the result. Buddhism stresses the Middle Path and compassion; Jainism stresses ahimsa. Kautilya wrote that the happiness of the subjects is the happiness of the ruler.

Determinants and consequences of ethics in human action

Determinants (what shapes our ethical choices):

  • 1. Family: the first school of values.
  • 2. Society and peers: customs, norms, and social pressure.
  • 3. Education and teachers: values taught and examples shown.
  • 4. Religion and culture: beliefs about right and wrong.
  • 5. Law and the State: rules and punishments.
  • 6. Media and role models.
  • 7. Conscience: the inner voice of right and wrong.
  • 8. Situation and personality: stress, temptation and strength of character.

Kohlberg's stages of moral development help in understanding how a person's reasoning grows. At the pre-conventional level, a person acts to avoid punishment or get reward. At the conventional level, the person follows social rules and approval. At the post-conventional level, the person follows universal principles, even if the rule is against the law.

Consequences of ethical or unethical conduct: for the individual, peace of mind or guilt; for others, trust or harm; for institutions, credibility or loss of confidence; for society, social capital and the rule of law or corruption and conflict. In public service, ethical failure has serious effects such as loss of public trust and denial of benefits to poor people.

Ethics in private and public relationships

  • Private: honesty, loyalty, respect, care for family, keeping promises, and fairness among friends. Private life and public life are linked; a person who is dishonest at home may find it hard to be honest in office.
  • Public: public servants are trustees of public resources. They must be impartial, objective and accountable, give equal treatment to all, and put public interest above private gain.
  • Conflict: an ethical dilemma arises when two values compete, such as loyalty to a friend and duty to the law, or compassion and rule-following. A good method is: identify the facts, identify stakeholders, list options, test each option against values, law and consequences, and choose the option that does least harm and respects the rules.

Human values and the role of institutions

Values may be terminal (end goals such as peace, equality, freedom) or instrumental (means such as honesty, courage, discipline). Important values are truth, non-violence, compassion, tolerance, empathy, integrity, humility and a sense of duty.

Role in building values:

  • Family: example of parents, discipline and love.
  • Society: community norms, social approval, volunteer work.
  • Educational institutions: moral education, teachers as role models, school culture, sports and service activities.

Other ideas to know

  • Ethical relativism says right and wrong depend on culture or person. Ethical absolutism says some rules are true for all people at all times. Most administrators use a middle position: some core values (honesty, non-harm) are firm, and the way they are applied depends on the situation.
  • Care ethics stresses relationships, empathy and responsibility to those who depend on us.
  • Ethics of means and ends: Gandhi said that wrong means cannot give a right result. Machiavelli, in contrast, is often quoted for saying that results can justify the means. Exam answers should show both views and then take a reasoned position.
  • Constitutional morality means respecting the values of the Constitution, such as equality, liberty and dignity, even when social opinion is against them. Ambedkar warned that democracy needs constitutional morality to survive.

Using ethics in daily administration

A civil servant meets ethical issues every day: pressure from a politician, a friend asking for a favour, a poor person who does not meet a technical rule, or a junior who has made a mistake. Good practice has five steps:

  • 1. State the problem clearly and check the facts.
  • 2. List who is affected: the public, the department, the family, the subordinates.
  • 3. Check the law, rules and conduct codes first.
  • 4. Test each option with simple questions: Is it honest? Is it fair to all? Would I be happy if it were made public? What are the results for the weakest person?
  • 5. Decide, record the reasons, and be ready to take responsibility.

This approach, sometimes called the "publicity test" or "newspaper test", is useful when a choice feels doubtful.

Lessons from great leaders and reformers

LeaderLesson
Mahatma GandhiPure means for pure ends; truth and non-violence; the talisman: think of the poorest person before a decision; his "seven social sins" include wealth without work and politics without principle
B.R. AmbedkarSocial justice, dignity and constitutional morality
Sardar Vallabhbhai PatelFirm and practical leadership; integration of princely States
Lal Bahadur ShastriSimplicity; he took moral responsibility and resigned after a railway accident when he was the Railway Minister
A.P.J. Abdul KalamService, humility, love for teaching and science
Swami VivekanandaService of the poor as service of God; strength of character
Mother TeresaCompassion for the poorest and sick
Abraham LincolnHonesty and moral courage; leadership in the face of national crisis

Reformers from Andhra include Kandukuri Veeresalingam, who worked for widow remarriage and women's education, and Gurajada Apparao, whose writings attacked social evils. Potti Sreeramulu is remembered for sacrificing his life for the cause of a separate Andhra State. These examples show moral courage and social service.

Lessons drawn from administrators: a civil servant should be incorruptible, put the poor first, listen to the people on the ground, take responsibility for the team, and speak truth to power with respect.

Exam traps

  • Ethics is a theory or code; morality is practice; law is enforced by the State. They overlap but are not the same.
  • Deontology looks at the act and duty; consequentialism looks at the result.
  • Virtue ethics is about character, not rules or results.
  • Kant: categorical imperative; Bentham and Mill: utility; Rawls: justice as fairness.
  • Terminal values are ends; instrumental values are means.
  • Kohlberg's three levels are pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional.
  • Legal does not always mean ethical.
  • Conscience is an inner guide; it can be wrong if values are poorly formed.

One-liners

  • 1. Ethos means character; mores means custom.
  • 2. Kant is the key thinker of duty-based ethics.
  • 3. Utilitarianism aims at the greatest good of the greatest number.
  • 4. Aristotle taught virtue as the golden mean.
  • 5. Rawls proposed the veil of ignorance.
  • 6. Nishkama karma is duty without attachment to results.
  • 7. Gandhi's talisman asks us to think of the poorest person.
  • 8. Kohlberg described three levels of moral development.
  • 9. Honesty is an instrumental value; equality is a terminal value.
  • 10. Family is the first institution of value formation.
  • 11. An ethical dilemma means a conflict between two values.
  • 12. Veeresalingam is known for social reform in Andhra.

Practice questions

  1. The word "ethics" comes from the Greek word ethos, which means

    1. Custom
    2. Law
    3. Character
    4. Duty
    Answer

    C. Character

    Ethos means character; the Latin mores means customs.

  2. Duty-based ethics is associated with

    1. John Rawls
    2. Immanuel Kant
    3. Aristotle
    4. Jeremy Bentham
    Answer

    B. Immanuel Kant

    Kant's categorical imperative is the best-known duty-based rule.

  3. Utilitarianism says an act is right if it

    1. Follows religious rules
    2. Follows the law
    3. Is done out of duty
    4. Gives the greatest happiness to the greatest number
    Answer

    D. Gives the greatest happiness to the greatest number

    This is the principle of utility of Bentham and Mill.

  4. Aristotle described virtue as

    1. Pure obedience
    2. The mean between two extremes
    3. A divine command
    4. A social contract
    Answer

    B. The mean between two extremes

    This is the doctrine of the golden mean.

  5. The "veil of ignorance" was proposed by

    1. Kohlberg
    2. Mill
    3. Rawls
    4. Kant
    Answer

    C. Rawls

    Rawls used it to decide fair rules without knowing one's own position.

  6. Nishkama karma means

    1. Rituals without thought
    2. Avoiding all work
    3. Work for reward
    4. Duty without attachment to results
    Answer

    D. Duty without attachment to results

    It is a key idea of the Bhagavad Gita.

  7. Which of these is a terminal value?

    1. Equality
    2. Honesty
    3. Discipline
    4. Courage
    Answer

    A. Equality

    Terminal values are end goals; the others are means.

  8. Kohlberg's highest level of moral development is

    1. Post-conventional
    2. Conventional
    3. Instrumental
    4. Pre-conventional
    Answer

    A. Post-conventional

    At this level, a person follows universal principles.

  9. In Kohlberg's pre-conventional level, a person acts mainly to

    1. Win social approval
    2. Follow universal justice
    3. Avoid punishment and gain reward
    4. Obey conscience alone
    Answer

    C. Avoid punishment and gain reward

    Behaviour is guided by punishment and reward.

  10. The "talisman" given by Gandhi asks a person to think of

    1. The most powerful person
    2. His political party
    3. His own family
    4. The poorest and weakest person he has seen
    Answer

    D. The poorest and weakest person he has seen

    It is a test for every decision: will it help the poorest?

  11. Which leader resigned as Railway Minister taking moral responsibility for a rail accident?

    1. Jawaharlal Nehru
    2. Lal Bahadur Shastri
    3. Sardar Patel
    4. Morarji Desai
    Answer

    B. Lal Bahadur Shastri

    Shastri resigned in the 1950s after a major railway accident.

  12. Veeresalingam is remembered in Andhra for

    1. Social reform, especially widow remarriage
    2. Founding a political party
    3. The Quit India movement
    4. Introducing railways
    Answer

    A. Social reform, especially widow remarriage

    He worked for widow remarriage and women's education.

  13. An act that is legal but unethical shows that

    1. Ethics has no value
    2. Ethics and law are always the same
    3. Law covers every ethical question
    4. Law is not a complete guide to ethics
    Answer

    D. Law is not a complete guide to ethics

    Law gives minimum standards; ethics goes beyond.

  14. An officer is asked to favour a friend in a tender. This creates

    1. A legal remedy
    2. A procedural error
    3. An ethical dilemma between loyalty and duty
    4. A policy question
    Answer

    C. An ethical dilemma between loyalty and duty

    Two values, friendship and public duty, compete.

  15. Which is the first institution of value formation?

    1. Media
    2. Family
    3. Workplace
    4. School
    Answer

    B. Family

    Family gives the earliest lessons in values.

  16. Ethics that deals with real fields such as medicine and business is called

    1. Pure ethics
    2. Descriptive ethics
    3. Meta-ethics
    4. Applied ethics
    Answer

    D. Applied ethics

    Applied ethics uses theories on real problems.

  17. Ethics that asks what the word "good" means is

    1. Normative ethics
    2. Meta-ethics
    3. Applied ethics
    4. Descriptive ethics
    Answer

    B. Meta-ethics

    Meta-ethics studies the meaning and nature of moral terms.

  18. A civil servant refuses to bend a rule even when a poor person suffers, because "rules are rules". Which approach is this closest to?

    1. Rigid duty-based thinking
    2. Care ethics
    3. Utilitarian thinking
    4. Virtue ethics
    Answer

    A. Rigid duty-based thinking

    Strict focus on rule over result is deontological.

  19. A decision-maker chooses the policy that benefits the largest number even though a few lose. This is

    1. Relativism
    2. Virtue ethics
    3. Utilitarian reasoning
    4. Deontology
    Answer

    C. Utilitarian reasoning

    It judges acts by their results for the many.

  20. A person helps a stranger because it is the kind of person he wants to be, not because of any rule or reward. This reflects

    1. Ego defence
    2. Virtue ethics
    3. Legal compliance
    4. Pre-conventional morality
    Answer

    B. Virtue ethics

    Virtue ethics is about character.

  21. Which step comes first when solving an ethical dilemma?

    1. Choosing the final option
    2. Blaming the person involved
    3. Identifying the facts and stakeholders
    4. Announcing the decision
    Answer

    C. Identifying the facts and stakeholders

    Facts and stakeholders must be clear before options are tested.

  22. Conscience is best described as

    1. A religious ritual
    2. A law of the State
    3. A public opinion poll
    4. An inner sense of right and wrong
    Answer

    D. An inner sense of right and wrong

    It guides conduct but depends on how well values are formed.

  23. Consider the statements. 1. Ethics and law are always identical. 2. A legal act can be unethical. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The two overlap but are not the same.

  24. Consider the statements. 1. Kant supported duty-based ethics. 2. Bentham supported consequence-based ethics. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  25. Consider the statements. 1. Honesty is an instrumental value. 2. Equality is a terminal value. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Honesty is a means; equality is an end.

  26. Consider the statements. 1. Family is a determinant of ethics. 2. Education has no role in forming values. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Education is also an important determinant.

  27. Consider the statements. 1. Kohlberg described three levels of moral development. 2. The post-conventional level is based on fear of punishment. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Fear of punishment belongs to the pre-conventional level.

  28. Consider the statements. 1. Rawls proposed justice as fairness. 2. Rawls supported ignoring the least advantaged. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Rawls aimed to protect the least advantaged.

  29. Consider the statements. 1. Gandhi believed that only results matter, not means. 2. Gandhi stressed pure means for pure ends. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Gandhi held that means and ends are linked.

  30. Consider the statements. 1. Ethics may be applied in public and private life. 2. Public servants are trustees of public resources. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  31. Consider the statements. 1. Virtue ethics focuses on character. 2. Aristotle gave the idea of the mean. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  32. Match the thinker with the theory: Bentham

    1. Justice as fairness
    2. Deontology
    3. Virtue ethics
    4. Utilitarianism
    Answer

    D. Utilitarianism

    Bentham founded classical utilitarianism.

  33. Match the thinker with the idea: Kant

    1. Golden mean
    2. Middle Path
    3. Veil of ignorance
    4. Categorical imperative
    Answer

    D. Categorical imperative

    The categorical imperative is Kant's test of universal rules.

  34. Match the leader with the lesson: Gandhi

    1. Pure means and the talisman
    2. Integration of princely States
    3. Teaching and science service
    4. Constitutional drafting only
    Answer

    A. Pure means and the talisman

    These are well-known Gandhian lessons.

  35. Match the leader with the lesson: Ambedkar

    1. Non-cooperation with the British
    2. Service of the sick
    3. Resignation after an accident
    4. Social justice and constitutional morality
    Answer

    D. Social justice and constitutional morality

    Ambedkar is linked to justice and dignity.

  36. Match the level with its basis: Conventional

    1. Instrumental gain
    2. Social rules and approval
    3. Fear of punishment
    4. Universal principles
    Answer

    B. Social rules and approval

    Conventional morality follows social norms.

  37. Match the Kohlberg level with its feature: Post-conventional

    1. Universal ethical principles
    2. Reward and punishment
    3. Peer approval
    4. Obedience to authority only
    Answer

    A. Universal ethical principles

    Persons at this level may oppose unjust laws.

  38. Which of the following is an example of applying the Gandhian talisman?

    1. Avoiding all decisions
    2. Following senior orders without thought
    3. Maximising departmental profit
    4. Checking whether a policy will help the poorest
    Answer

    D. Checking whether a policy will help the poorest

    It tests a decision against the effect on the weakest.

  39. Which of the following is the best example of an ethical dilemma in office?

    1. Choosing between two equally legal files to read first
    2. Choosing between reporting a colleague's wrong act and staying loyal
    3. Selecting the font in a report
    4. Choosing a holiday date
    Answer

    B. Choosing between reporting a colleague's wrong act and staying loyal

    The dilemma is between loyalty and duty.

  40. Who among the following is known for the idea that the subjects' welfare is the king's welfare?

    1. Aristotle
    2. Bentham
    3. Kautilya
    4. Kant
    Answer

    C. Kautilya

    Kautilya's Arthashastra links the king's happiness to that of the subjects.

  41. The study of what people actually believe and do about morality is called

    1. Normative ethics
    2. Descriptive ethics
    3. Meta-ethics
    4. Applied ethics
    Answer

    B. Descriptive ethics

    Descriptive ethics records actual beliefs and practices.

  42. Which institution is most directly responsible for teaching values through moral education and role models after the family?

    1. Educational institutions
    2. Courts
    3. Banks
    4. Political parties
    Answer

    A. Educational institutions

    Schools and teachers play a major role.

  43. The Latin word mores, from which "morality" is derived, means

    1. Law
    2. Duty
    3. Reason
    4. Customs
    Answer

    D. Customs

    Mores means customs or manners.

  44. Utilitarian thinking can be criticised because it

    1. Rejects all consequences
    2. Is based on fear
    3. Depends on religion
    4. May ignore the rights of the minority
    Answer

    D. May ignore the rights of the minority

    The greatest good of many can harm a few.

  45. Which is a feature of post-conventional reasoning?

    1. Following peers
    2. Following universal principles even against an unjust rule
    3. Obedience to avoid blame
    4. Seeking reward
    Answer

    B. Following universal principles even against an unjust rule

    It rests on universal justice.

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