Literature and Languages of India, Classical Language Status

What to remember

• India's oldest literature is Vedic Sanskrit (Rigveda), followed by the epics, Sangam Tamil works and the Prakrit and Pali Buddhist and Jain texts. Modern Indian languages grew from the Bhakti movement.
• The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution lists 22 languages. A classical language is a separate honour given by the Government of India for a very old and independent literary tradition.
• Telugu received classical status together with Kannada. Nannaya is the Adikavi of Telugu, and the Kavitrayam (Nannaya, Tikkana, Errana) wrote the Andhra Mahabharatam.

Ancient Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit

• Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda. Rigveda is the oldest. Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads follow.
• Epics: the Ramayana (Valmiki, called the Adikavi of Sanskrit) and the Mahabharata (Vyasa), which includes the Bhagavad Gita.
• Grammar: Panini wrote the *Ashtadhyayi*, the grammar of Sanskrit. Patanjali wrote the *Mahabhashya*, a commentary on Panini.
• Drama and poetry: Kalidasa wrote *Abhijnanashakuntalam* (play), *Meghaduta* and *Raghuvamsha* (poems). Bana wrote the *Harshacharita* (life of Harsha) and *Kadambari*. Bharata wrote the *Natyashastra* on drama and dance.
• Buddhist texts are in Pali (the Tripitakas, the Jataka tales). Jain texts are in Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi).

Tamil and Sangam literature

Sangam literature is the earliest Tamil literature. Famous works: *Tolkappiyam* (grammar), *Pattuppattu* and *Ettuttokai* (collections of poems). The two Tamil epics are the *Silappatikaram* (Ilango Adigal) and the *Manimekalai* (Sittalai Sattanar). Tirukkural by Thiruvalluvar is a short book of ethical couplets. The Alvars (Vishnu devotees) and Nayanmars (Shiva devotees) wrote devotional songs in Tamil.

Medieval and Bhakti literature

• Hindi and related: Kabir (couplets called dohas), Surdas (Krishna songs in Braj), Tulsidas (*Ramcharitmanas* in Awadhi), Mirabai (Krishna songs). Amir Khusrau wrote in Persian and early Hindavi.
• Marathi: Jnaneshwar (*Jnaneshwari*, a commentary on the Gita), Tukaram, Namdev.
• Bengali: Chandidas, Chaitanya-bhakti poetry. Punjabi: Guru Granth Sahib, which holds hymns of Sikh Gurus and many saints.
• Persian and Urdu: Persian was the court language of the Mughals. Urdu grew from the camp and market speech of Delhi.

Telugu literature

Later landmarks: Gurajada Apparao wrote *Kanyasulkam*, the first modern Telugu play, and the poem "Desamunu Preminchumanna". Gidugu Ramamurthy led the spoken-language (vyavaharika) movement. Sri Sri wrote *Mahaprasthanam*. Viswanatha Satyanarayana wrote *Ramayana Kalpavriksham*. C. Narayana Reddy wrote *Viswambhara*. Both won the Jnanpith Award. Tyagaraja (Telugu keerthanas), Kshetrayya (padams) and Tallapaka poets are also important.

Other major regional literatures

• Kannada: Pampa, Ranna, Ponna (the "three gems") wrote in Old Kannada.
• Malayalam: *Ramacharitam* (early), Ezhuthachan (the father of modern Malayalam).
• Odia: Sarala Das (Odia Mahabharata). Assamese: Sankardeva. Bengali: Rabindranath Tagore (Nobel Prize 1913 for *Gitanjali*), Bankim Chandra (*Anandamath*).

Eighth Schedule and classical languages

The Eighth Schedule (Articles 344(1) and 351) lists the official languages. It began with 14 languages. Sindhi was added by the 21st Amendment. Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were added by the 71st Amendment. Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santali were added by the 92nd Amendment, making 22. Telugu is in the Eighth Schedule. Hindi is the official language of the Union in Devanagari script (Article 343).

Classical language status. The Government of India created this category in 2004. Tamil was the first. Later:

Main tests for classical status: early texts that are very old (over 1,500 to 2,000 years), a body of ancient literature held as a heritage by speakers, and an original literary tradition not borrowed from another community. The Centre supports such languages with international awards, centres of excellence and university chairs.

Sanskrit literature in more detail

The Puranas (18 main ones) tell stories of gods, creation and kings. Smritis such as the *Manusmriti* give rules for society. The Arthashastra by Kautilya (Chanakya) is a book on state and government. The Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma is a collection of animal tales with a moral. Jayadeva wrote the *Gita Govinda* in Sanskrit about Radha and Krishna. Kalhana wrote the *Rajatarangini*, a history of Kashmir, often called the first Indian history book. Shudraka wrote *Mrichchhakatika*, a drama about a poor merchant and a courtesan. Bhasa was an early dramatist. Amarasimha wrote a Sanskrit dictionary, the *Amarakosha*.

Persian, Urdu and modern writing

Amir Khusrau, a poet at the Delhi court, wrote in Persian and in the early form of Hindi. Mirza Ghalib and Mir Taqi Mir are great Urdu poets. Muhammad Iqbal wrote the song "Saare Jahan Se Achha". Munshi Premchand wrote Hindi and Urdu stories and novels, such as *Godaan*. Rabindranath Tagore wrote *Gitanjali* and the song that became India's national anthem, "Jana Gana Mana". Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote "Vande Mataram", the national song.

Telugu: more landmarks and ideas

Telugu literature is divided into broad periods: the early period (Nannaya's age), the Kavitrayam period, the Srinatha-Potana period, the Prabandha period under Krishnadevaraya, and then the modern period. A prabandha is a long poem with a story plot, and Peddana's *Manucharitra* is an example. The Kakatiya rulers supported poets. Palkuriki Somanatha wrote in the folk style, a sign of the people's literature. Tikkana took the Mahabharatam forward to its end after Nannaya. The Satavahana king Hala compiled the Prakrit work *Gathasaptashati*, an early collection of verses from this land.

In the modern period, Kandukuri Veeresalingam is called the father of modern Telugu prose and wrote the first Telugu novel, *Rajasekhara Charitramu*. Gurajada and Gidugu strengthened the modern spoken style. Sri Sri brought a new voice for the working people. Folk forms such as Burrakatha and Harikatha also carry stories to villagers.

Language families of India

Telugu is a Dravidian language. It is often praised as "the Italian of the East" for its sweet sound. This is a popular phrase and not a rule of grammar.

Study tips: matching authors with works

A good way to remember is to link each author with a language, a century and a type of work. Sanskrit: Kalidasa (play and poem), Bana (prose), Panini (grammar), Kautilya (state craft). Tamil: Ilango Adigal (epic), Thiruvalluvar (ethics). Telugu: Nannaya, Tikkana, Errana (epic), Potana (devotion), Vemana (moral verse), Annamacharya (songs). Hindi: Tulsidas, Kabir, Surdas, Mirabai. Marathi: Jnaneshwar, Tukaram. Each name appears in exam questions as a "match the following" or as the odd one out.

Another idea is the link between language and region. Telugu is spoken in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana; Kannada in Karnataka; Tamil in Tamil Nadu; Malayalam in Kerala. These four make up the Dravidian south. The Telugu script is written from left to right and belongs to the Brahmi family, like the Kannada script.

Exam traps

• Adikavi: Valmiki is the Adikavi of Sanskrit; Nannaya is the Adikavi of Telugu.
• Kavitrayam: Nannaya, Tikkana and Errana, not Srinatha or Potana.
• Ashtadiggajas served Krishnadevaraya; they are not the Kavitrayam.
• Amuktamalyada was written in Telugu by the king; his Sanskrit works are different.
• Panini vs Patanjali: Panini wrote the Ashtadhyayi; Patanjali wrote the Mahabhashya.
• Ramcharitmanas is Tulsidas in Awadhi; the Jnaneshwari is Marathi.
• Eighth Schedule is not the same as classical status. Not all scheduled languages are classical, and the number in the Schedule is 22.
• Telugu and Kannada were given classical status together.

One-liners

• 1. The Rigveda is the oldest Veda.
• 2. Valmiki is the Adikavi of Sanskrit.
• 3. Nannaya began the Andhra Mahabharatam.
• 4. Potana wrote the Andhra Maha Bhagavatam.
• 5. Kanyasulkam by Gurajada Apparao is the first modern Telugu play.
• 6. Silappatikaram is a Tamil epic by Ilango Adigal.
• 7. Tirukkural was written by Thiruvalluvar.
• 8. Kalidasa wrote Abhijnanashakuntalam.
• 9. Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas.
• 10. Tamil was the first language to be declared classical.
• 11. The Eighth Schedule has 22 languages.
• 12. Annamacharya composed devotional songs on Lord Venkateswara.

Practice questions

1. Who is regarded as the Adikavi of Telugu?

   1. Tikkana
   2. Potana
   3. Errana
   4. Nannaya
   Answer

   D. Nannaya

   Nannaya began the Andhra Mahabharatam and is the Adikavi.

2. Who is called the Adikavi of Sanskrit?

   1. Bana
   2. Valmiki
   3. Vyasa
   4. Kalidasa
   Answer

   B. Valmiki

   Valmiki, author of the Ramayana, is the first poet of Sanskrit.

3. The Andhra Maha Bhagavatam was written by

   1. Potana
   2. Errana
   3. Srinatha
   4. Peddana
   Answer

   A. Potana

   Potana translated the Bhagavata in Telugu.

4. The first modern Telugu play Kanyasulkam was written by

   1. Gidugu Ramamurthy
   2. Sri Sri
   3. Kandukuri Veeresalingam
   4. Gurajada Apparao
   Answer

   D. Gurajada Apparao

   Gurajada wrote Kanyasulkam.

5. Amuktamalyada, a Telugu work about Andal, was written by

   1. Tikkana
   2. Allasani Peddana
   3. Srinatha
   4. Krishnadevaraya
   Answer

   D. Krishnadevaraya

   The Vijayanagara king composed it in Telugu.

6. The Ashtadiggajas were eight poets in the court of

   1. Harshavardhana
   2. Krishnadevaraya
   3. Kulottunga Chola
   4. Ganapati Deva
   Answer

   B. Krishnadevaraya

   They adorned Krishnadevaraya's court.

7. The Sanskrit grammar Ashtadhyayi was written by

   1. Panini
   2. Patanjali
   3. Kautilya
   4. Bharata
   Answer

   A. Panini

   Panini wrote the Ashtadhyayi.

8. The Tamil epic Silappatikaram was composed by

   1. Sittalai Sattanar
   2. Kamban
   3. Ilango Adigal
   4. Thiruvalluvar
   Answer

   C. Ilango Adigal

   Ilango Adigal is its author.

9. Tirukkural, a book of ethical couplets, was written by

   1. Thiruvalluvar
   2. Tolkappiyar
   3. Ilango Adigal
   4. Avvaiyar
   Answer

   A. Thiruvalluvar

   Tirukkural is by Thiruvalluvar.

10. Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas in which language?

    1. Maithili
    2. Awadhi
    3. Bhojpuri
    4. Braj
    Answer

    B. Awadhi

    The Ramcharitmanas is in Awadhi.

11. The play Abhijnanashakuntalam was written by

    1. Bhasa
    2. Shudraka
    3. Bana
    4. Kalidasa
    Answer

    D. Kalidasa

    It is Kalidasa's best-known play.

12. The Natyashastra, an ancient text on drama and dance, is attributed to

    1. Kalidasa
    2. Panini
    3. Bharata
    4. Patanjali
    Answer

    C. Bharata

    Bharata Muni is the traditional author.

13. The Harshacharita, a life of King Harsha, was written by

    1. Kalhana
    2. Kalidasa
    3. Jayadeva
    4. Bana
    Answer

    D. Bana

    Bana was Harsha's court poet.

14. The Rajatarangini is a history of which region?

    1. Kashmir
    2. Gujarat
    3. Bengal
    4. Andhra
    Answer

    A. Kashmir

    Kalhana wrote it on the kings of Kashmir.

15. How many languages are listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution?

    1. 18
    2. 22
    3. 24
    4. 20
    Answer

    B. 22

    The Schedule lists 22 languages today.

16. Which was the first language to be declared a classical language?

    1. Kannada
    2. Telugu
    3. Tamil
    4. Sanskrit
    Answer

    C. Tamil

    Tamil was first, in 2004.

17. Telugu was given classical language status along with

    1. Malayalam
    2. Marathi
    3. Kannada
    4. Odia
    Answer

    C. Kannada

    Telugu and Kannada were declared together.

18. The Jnaneshwari is a Marathi commentary on the

    1. Bhagavad Gita
    2. Rigveda
    3. Bhagavata Purana
    4. Ramayana
    Answer

    A. Bhagavad Gita

    Jnaneshwar wrote it on the Gita.

19. Vemana's Telugu poems are short verses that give

    1. battle stories
    2. moral and social lessons
    3. court praises
    4. astronomy rules
    Answer

    B. moral and social lessons

    Vemana's verses are known for their ethics and social criticism.

20. The Telugu poem Srungara Naishadham was composed by

    1. Potana
    2. Tikkana
    3. Errana
    4. Srinatha
    Answer

    D. Srinatha

    Srinatha is known for it.

21. The Panchatantra, a collection of animal tales, was written by

    1. Amarasimha
    2. Jayadeva
    3. Kautilya
    4. Vishnu Sharma
    Answer

    D. Vishnu Sharma

    Vishnu Sharma is the traditional author.

22. The first Telugu novel is generally considered to be

    1. Mahaprasthanam
    2. Kanyasulkam
    3. Rajasekhara Charitramu
    4. Maalapalli
    Answer

    C. Rajasekhara Charitramu

    Veeresalingam wrote Rajasekhara Charitramu.

23. Mahaprasthanam, a modern Telugu poetry collection, was written by

    1. Sri Sri
    2. Viswanatha Satyanarayana
    3. Gurajada
    4. Gidugu
    Answer

    A. Sri Sri

    Sri Sri wrote Mahaprasthanam.

24. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution is linked with which Articles?

    1. 124 and 214
    2. 344(1) and 351
    3. 14 and 15
    4. 352 and 356
    Answer

    B. 344(1) and 351

    These articles refer to the Eighth Schedule languages.

25. Under which Article is Hindi in Devanagari script the official language of the Union?

    1. Article 21
    2. Article 51
    3. Article 370
    4. Article 343
    Answer

    D. Article 343

    Article 343 says so.

26. The earliest Tamil literature is known as

    1. Sangam literature
    2. Prabandha literature
    3. Pala literature
    4. Bhakti literature
    Answer

    A. Sangam literature

    Sangam works are the oldest Tamil texts.

27. A 'prabandha' in Telugu literature is

    1. a temple chart
    2. a court record
    3. a long story poem
    4. a folk dance
    Answer

    C. a long story poem

    Peddana's Manucharitra is an example.

28. Which of the following is a Dravidian language?

    1. Assamese
    2. Kannada
    3. Gujarati
    4. Marathi
    Answer

    B. Kannada

    Kannada belongs to the Dravidian family.

29. The Tripitakas, the Buddhist canon, were written in

    1. Pali
    2. Persian
    3. Tamil
    4. Ardhamagadhi
    Answer

    A. Pali

    The Buddhist texts are in Pali.

30. Jain scriptures were mainly composed in

    1. Persian
    2. Telugu
    3. Pali
    4. Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi)
    Answer

    D. Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi)

    Jain canon is in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit.

31. Patanjali's Mahabhashya is a commentary on the work of

    1. Kautilya
    2. Bharata
    3. Panini
    4. Kalidasa
    Answer

    C. Panini

    The Mahabhashya explains Panini's grammar.

32. Kabir's short two-line verses are called

    1. keerthanas
    2. dohas
    3. ghazals
    4. vachanas
    Answer

    B. dohas

    Kabir's dohas are famous.

33. One basic condition for classical language status is

    1. very old early texts and an original literary tradition
    2. use only in courts
    3. a script from Persia
    4. fewer than a lakh speakers
    Answer

    A. very old early texts and an original literary tradition

    A classical language needs great antiquity and an independent tradition.

34. Consider the statements: 1. Valmiki is the Adikavi of Sanskrit. 2. Nannaya is the Adikavi of Telugu. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are standard titles.

35. Consider the statements: 1. The Kavitrayam are Nannaya, Tikkana and Errana. 2. Tikkana was one of the Ashtadiggajas. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Tikkana lived earlier than Krishnadevaraya's court.

36. Consider the statements: 1. Panini wrote the Mahabhashya. 2. Patanjali wrote the Ashtadhyayi. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    Both are reversed.

37. Consider the statements: 1. Telugu is in the Eighth Schedule. 2. Telugu was the first language declared classical. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Tamil was first.

38. Consider the statements: 1. Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas. 2. Surdas sang of Krishna in Braj. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

39. Consider the statements: 1. Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santali were added by the 92nd Amendment. 2. Sindhi was added by the 71st Amendment. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Sindhi was added by the 21st Amendment.

40. Consider the statements: 1. Silappatikaram is a Sanskrit epic. 2. Tolkappiyam is an early Tamil grammar. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Silappatikaram is Tamil.

41. Consider the statements: 1. Kalidasa wrote the Meghaduta. 2. Bana wrote the Harshacharita. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

42. Consider the statements: 1. Gidugu Ramamurthy led the spoken-language movement in Telugu. 2. Kandukuri Veeresalingam wrote the first Telugu novel. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are standard facts.

43. Consider the statements: 1. Annamacharya composed songs on Lord Venkateswara. 2. Potana wrote the Amuktamalyada. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Krishnadevaraya wrote the Amuktamalyada.

44. Match the authors with their works. (a) Nannaya (b) Potana (c) Krishnadevaraya (d) Gurajada 1 Amuktamalyada 2 Kanyasulkam 3 Andhra Mahabharatam 4 Andhra Maha Bhagavatam

    1. a-3, b-4, c-2, d-1
    2. a-3, b-4, c-1, d-2
    3. a-4, b-3, c-1, d-2
    4. a-3, b-1, c-4, d-2
    Answer

    B. a-3, b-4, c-1, d-2

    Nannaya-Mahabharatam; Potana-Bhagavatam; Krishnadevaraya-Amuktamalyada; Gurajada-Kanyasulkam.

45. Match the authors with their works. (a) Panini (b) Kalhana (c) Bana (d) Kalidasa 1 Rajatarangini 2 Harshacharita 3 Abhijnanashakuntalam 4 Ashtadhyayi

    1. a-1, b-4, c-2, d-3
    2. a-4, b-2, c-1, d-3
    3. a-3, b-1, c-2, d-4
    4. a-4, b-1, c-2, d-3
    Answer

    D. a-4, b-1, c-2, d-3

    Panini-Ashtadhyayi; Kalhana-Rajatarangini; Bana-Harshacharita; Kalidasa-Abhijnanashakuntalam.