Medieval Indian Architecture

9.1 Indo-Islamic Architecture

Indo-Islamic architecture represents a fusion of Islamic structural principles (arches, domes, minarets, absence of figural representation, use of calligraphy and geometric ornamentation) with indigenous Indian craftsmanship and materials.

• Sultanate period: The Qutub Minar (begun by Aibak, completed by Iltutmish, further additions by Firoz Shah Tughlaq and later Alauddin Khalji's Alai Darwaza gateway) is the tallest brick minaret in the world. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque at its base was built using pillars and material from demolished temples. Tughlaq architecture is characterised by austere, sloping (batter) walls, as at Tughlaqabad Fort.
• Provincial Sultanate styles: Distinct regional idioms developed at Jaunpur (Sharqi dynasty, the Atala Masjid), Bengal (use of brick and terracotta, curved "do-chala" roof forms later influencing Bengal temple architecture), Gujarat (blending Jain/Hindu decorative elements with mosque architecture, e.g., the Jama Masjid at Ahmedabad), and Malwa (Mandu — the Jahaz Mahal and Hoshang Shah's Tomb).
• Vijayanagara style: Elaborate pillared halls (mandapas) with carved rearing-horse/yali pillars, ornate gopurams, and the distinctive stone chariot at the Vittala Temple, Hampi.

9.2 Mughal Architecture

• Akbar's period: Blended red sandstone with white marble inlay and Hindu architectural elements (chhatris, brackets); major works include Humayun's Tomb (built by his widow, an important precursor to the Taj Mahal, itself the first great Mughal garden-tomb), Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri (Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, Jodha Bai's Palace), and Akbar's own tomb at Sikandra.
• Shah Jahan's period: The zenith of Mughal architecture — extensive use of white marble, pietra dura (parchin kari) inlay, and refined symmetry; the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid (Delhi), and Moti Masjid (Agra Fort) exemplify this style.
• Charbagh garden style (a quadrilateral garden divided by walkways/canals into four parts, of Persian/Timurid origin) is a hallmark of Mughal garden design, seen at Humayun's Tomb, the Taj Mahal complex, and the Shalimar Bagh (Kashmir/Lahore).
• Aurangzeb's period: Marked relative decline in architectural patronage/lavishness; notable works include the Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad, a more modest echo of the Taj Mahal, built for his wife) and the Badshahi Mosque (Lahore).

9.3 Other Medieval Architectural Traditions

• Rajput palace-fort architecture: Chittorgarh Fort, Amber Fort (Jaipur), Mehrangarh Fort (Jodhpur) — blending defensive military design with ornate residential palaces (mahals).
• Sikh architecture: The Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple), Amritsar, built under Guru Arjan Dev and later gilded under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, is architecturally notable for having entrances on all four sides, symbolising openness to all.
• Stepwells (Baolis/Vavs): A distinctive medieval Indian architectural form for water conservation, exemplified by Rani ki Vav (Patan, Gujarat) and Chand Baori (Abhaneri, Rajasthan).