5.3 Akbar (1556–1605 CE) — In Depth

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Ascended the throne at age 13 (1556 CE) after Humayun's death; initially guided by regent Bairam Khan.
Battle of Panipat II (1556 CE): Akbar's forces (under Bairam Khan) defeated Hemu (Hindu general/self-declared king who briefly captured Delhi/Agra, associated with the Suri remnants) — consolidated Mughal control.

Conquered Malwa (1562), Gondwana (1564, defeated Rani Durgavati), Chittor (1568, after fierce Rajput resistance including Jauhar), Ranthambore (1569), Gujarat (1572–73), Bengal & Bihar (1576, defeated Afghan chief Daud Khan Karrani), Kabul (1585), Kashmir (1586), Sindh (1591), Orissa (1592), parts of the Deccan (Ahmadnagar, Khandesh, Berar — through his son Prince Murad/Daniyal and general Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan).
Battle of Haldighati (1576 CE): Akbar's forces (led by Raja Man Singh of Amber and Asaf Khan) fought against Rana Pratap Singh (Maharana Pratap) of Mewar. Mughal forces won tactically, but Rana Pratap escaped and continued guerrilla resistance from the Aravalli hills for the rest of his life — Mewar was never fully subjugated by Akbar. (Maharana Pratap's loyal horse "Chetak" is a celebrated part of this legend.)

Akbar pursued a policy of conciliation and alliance with Rajputs rather than continuous conquest — a major departure from earlier Sultanate policy.
Married Rajput princesses (most famously the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber — mother of Prince Salim/Jahangir) — matrimonial alliances.
Gave Rajput kings high positions in the Mughal nobility/Mansabdari system (e.g., Raja Man Singh of Amber, Raja Bhagwan Das) — Rajputs became important military commanders and administrators of the empire.
Abolished the pilgrim tax and the Jizya tax on non-Muslims (1564 CE) — a major step towards religious tolerance.
Exception: Mewar (Sisodias) under Rana Pratap and successors refused submission and continued resistance.

1. Mansabdari System:

A military-cum-bureaucratic ranking system for Mughal officials/nobles (Mansabdars).
Each Mansabdar was assigned a rank expressed in two numbers: Zat (personal status/salary) and Sawar (number of cavalry/horsemen he was required to maintain).
Ranks ranged from 10 to 5,000 (higher for princes, up to 7,000-10,000).
Mansabdars were paid either in cash (naqdi) or through revenue assignments called Jagirs (similar in concept to Iqtas but distinct in administration — Jagirdars did not necessarily reside in or directly rule their Jagir, unlike Iqtadars).
This system integrated military, civil, and revenue administration into a single unified nobility structure — a hallmark of Mughal governance.

2. Land Revenue System — Zabti/Dahsala System (under Raja Todar Mal, Akbar's finance minister):

Land measured (using a standardized measuring rod, the "Ilahi Gaz") and classified into four categories based on continuity of cultivation: Polaj (annually cultivated), Parauti (fallow, cultivated after a gap), Chachar (fallow for 3-4 years), Banjar (uncultivated for 5+ years).
Average produce and prices of the previous 10 years (Dah = ten, Sala = year → "Dahsala") were calculated to fix a stable cash revenue demand per unit area — reduced arbitrariness and stabilized state income.
This system, called Zabti or Todar Mal's Bandobast, was applied mainly in the core Mughal provinces (Doab, Punjab, Malwa, etc.); other regions used different systems (Batai/Ghalla-bakshi — crop-sharing).
Ain-i-Dahsala — the detailed revenue manual/regulation associated with this system.

3. Din-i-Ilahi (Tauhid-i-Ilahi), 1582 CE:

Akbar's syncretic religious/ethical order — not exactly a new "religion" in the strict sense but an ethical code/spiritual discipleship drawing from Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, and Christianity — aimed at fostering unity and loyalty among nobles across religious lines.
Emphasized rationalism, tolerance, and loyalty to the emperor; had very few actual followers (Birbal being one of the very few Hindu followers; most nobles, including devout Muslims, did not join).
Grew out of Akbar's broader project of religious inquiry — he built the "Ibadat Khana" (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri (1575 CE) where scholars of different faiths (including Jesuit missionaries from Goa) debated theology in his presence.
Issued the "Mahzar" (Infallibility Decree), 1579 CE — declared Akbar the final arbiter in religious disputes among Muslims, superior to the Ulema in matters of interpretation — enhanced his religious authority.

4. Other administrative structures:

Central departments: Diwan-i-Ala (finance, headed by Wazir/Diwan), Mir Bakshi (military pay/Mansab records), Sadr-us-Sudur (religious/charitable grants), Qazi-ul-Quzat (justice), Khan-i-Saman (royal household).
Empire divided into Subas (provinces) — headed by a Subedar/Sipah Salar; each Suba further divided into Sarkars and Parganas (continuing Sher Shah's model).
Akbar's reign had 15 Subas (later increased under successors).

Birbal (courtier-advisor, known for wit)
Tansen (legendary musician, composer of ragas, originally from Gwalior court)
Raja Todar Mal (revenue minister — Zabti system)
Abul Fazl (chronicler — author of "Akbarnama" and "Ain-i-Akbari", the definitive administrative gazetteer of Akbar's reign)
Faizi (poet, Abul Fazl's brother)
Raja Man Singh (Rajput general)
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan (general, poet — wrote dohas in Hindi/Braj Bhasha, translated Baburnama into Persian)
Fakir Aziao-Din
Mullah Do Piaza

Fatehpur Sikri (near Agra) — new capital built by Akbar (c. 1571–1585 CE), later abandoned due to water scarcity; features Buland Darwaza (built to commemorate Gujarat victory), Jama Masjid, Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, tomb of Salim Chishti.
Agra Fort (red sandstone fort, renovated/expanded by Akbar).
Humayun's Tomb, Delhi — built by Humayun's widow Bega Begum, completed during Akbar's reign (c. 1565–72 CE) — early example of Mughal garden-tomb architecture (later inspiring the Taj Mahal).
Akbar's own tomb at Sikandra (near Agra) — completed by Jahangir.

Panipat II (1556) vs Hemu.
Battle of Haldighati (1576) vs Rana Pratap — Mughals won tactically, Pratap not subdued.
Rajput policy: matrimonial alliances, Mansabdari ranks for Rajputs, abolished Jizya (1564) and pilgrim tax.
Mansabdari system: Zat + Sawar ranks.
Zabti/Dahsala system — Raja Todar Mal; land classified as Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, Banjar.
Din-i-Ilahi (1582); Ibadat Khana (1575, Fatehpur Sikri); Mahzar (1579).
Abul Fazl — Akbarnama, Ain-i-Akbari.
Fatehpur Sikri — new capital; Buland Darwaza.

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