←
SSC-Standard General Studies Foundation · Chapter 9

Social Systems and Development Indicators

What to remember

  • Population is counted by the Census every ten years; literacy, sex ratio and density are the standard measures drawn from it.
  • Health is measured by rates such as IMR, MMR, TFR and life expectancy; each has a fixed definition that exams test directly.
  • Development is wider than income: the Human Development Index (HDI) combines health, education and standard of living.

1. Population and the Census

The Census is the official count of people, houses and many social facts. In India it is held every ten years (a decennial census). The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, under the Ministry of Home Affairs, runs it. The Census is on the Union List of the Constitution.

The first complete census that covered the whole country at one time (synchronous) was in 1881. Census work after Independence began in 1951. It was then held every decade up to 2011; the 2021 Census was postponed, and the next Census (reference date 1 March 2027) will also enumerate caste.

Key terms:

  • Population density is the number of persons per square kilometre of land area.
  • Birth rate is live births per 1,000 population in a year. Death rate is deaths per 1,000 population in a year.
  • Natural growth rate is birth rate minus death rate. Migration is not counted in it.
  • Growth rate of population can be shown as decadal growth (change over ten years, in per cent).
  • Urban population lives in towns defined by the Census. A census town has a minimum population, a high share of male workers outside farming, and a minimum density.

The stages of the demographic transition show how a country changes as it develops:

StageBirth rateDeath ratePopulation growth
1. Pre-industrialHighHighSlow or stable
2. Early transitionHighFalls fastRapid
3. Late transitionFallsLowSlowing
4. MatureLowLowStable or very slow

India is usually described as being in the later part of the transition, because birth rates have fallen but the population is still large and young.

2. Sex ratio and age structure

Sex ratio in India is the number of females per 1,000 males. This is different from many countries, where it is shown as males per 100 females. Child sex ratio is the same ratio for children aged 0 to 6 years. It is a sharper warning sign of discrimination against girl children.

Age structure divides people into three groups: children (0-14), working age (15-59, or 15-64 in some measures) and old (60 and above). The dependency ratio compares the dependent groups with the working-age group. When the working-age share is large, a country can gain a demographic dividend, but only if there are enough jobs and skills.

3. Literacy

In the Census, a person aged 7 years and above who can both read and write with understanding in any language is literate. Children below 7 are treated as illiterate for this count.

  • Literacy rate = literate persons aged 7 and above as a share of the population aged 7 and above.
  • Effective literacy rate uses the population aged 7 and above as the base. Crude literacy rate uses the total population.
  • The gap between male and female literacy is called the gender gap in literacy. Rural women have usually shown the lowest literacy.
  • Government efforts include the Right to Education Act (free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 under Article 21A), the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the Mid-Day Meal scheme (renamed PM POSHAN in 2021) and adult-literacy programmes. The Samagra Shiksha scheme later joined school-education programmes together.

4. Health indicators

IndicatorMeaning
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)Deaths of children under 1 year per 1,000 live births
Under-five mortality rateDeaths before age 5 per 1,000 live births
Neonatal mortality rateDeaths in the first 28 days per 1,000 live births
Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR)Maternal deaths per 100,000 live births
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)Average number of children a woman would have in her life
Life expectancy at birthAverage years a newborn is expected to live

Points to remember:

  • IMR is counted per 1,000 live births; MMR is counted per 1,00,000 live births. This difference is a favourite trap.
  • A TFR of about 2.1 is called the replacement level. At this level a population just replaces itself over time.
  • Life expectancy in India has risen across the decades because of better medicine, vaccination and sanitation. Women generally live longer than men.
  • NFHS (National Family Health Survey) gives state-wise and national data on fertility, child health, nutrition and women's health. The International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, leads it.
  • The Sample Registration System (SRS) gives regular estimates of birth rate, death rate and IMR.
  • Malnutrition is checked by stunting (low height for age), wasting (low weight for height) and underweight (low weight for age). Anaemia among women and children is a major concern.
  • Programmes: the National Health Mission (with rural and urban parts), Janani Suraksha Yojana (cash help for institutional delivery), Ayushman Bharat (health cover and health and wellness centres), Mission Indradhanush (vaccination) and POSHAN Abhiyaan (nutrition).

In Andhra Pradesh, the Dr YSR Aarogyasri health scheme (now under a renamed version) gives cashless treatment for serious illnesses to eligible families. Check the latest official name before quoting it.

5. Development: concepts

Economic growth means a rise in national income or output. Economic development is wider: it includes better health, education, equality and freedom, as well as income.

Main concepts:

  • Per capita income = national income divided by population. It is an average and can hide inequality.
  • Poverty line is a minimum level of spending or calorie intake. People below it are counted as poor. Poverty is now also measured in non-income ways.
  • Inequality is often shown by the Gini coefficient. It lies between 0 (perfect equality) and 1 (perfect inequality). The Lorenz curve is the graph used with it.
  • Sustainable development means meeting present needs without harming the ability of future generations to meet theirs. The UN set the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 17 in number, to be met by 2030.
  • Capability approach: Amartya Sen argued that development means expanding people's real freedoms and abilities, not only income.
  • Social indicators such as literacy, life expectancy and sanitation show well-being beyond income.

6. Human Development Index (HDI)

The HDI is published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in its Human Development Report. The idea was developed by Mahbub ul Haq (Pakistan), with Amartya Sen's ideas behind it. The first report came in 1990.

DimensionIndicator used
A long and healthy lifeLife expectancy at birth
KnowledgeMean years of schooling and expected years of schooling
Decent standard of livingGross National Income per capita (in PPP terms)
  • The value lies between 0 and 1. A value closer to 1 means higher human development.
  • Countries are grouped as very high, high, medium and low human development.
  • The dimension scores are combined by a geometric mean (since 2010).
  • Other UNDP measures: Gender Development Index (GDI) compares HDI of women and men; Gender Inequality Index (GII) looks at reproductive health, empowerment and labour market; Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) looks at poverty through health, education and living standards, and was developed with Oxford's OPHI.
  • NITI Aayog publishes India's national MPI. It uses health, education and standard-of-living indicators.
  • PQLI (Physical Quality of Life Index), by Morris D. Morris, used infant mortality, life expectancy and basic literacy. It did not include income.

7. Other social systems terms

  • Social stratification is the ranking of people into layers such as class and caste.
  • Urbanisation is the rising share of people living in towns and cities.
  • Migration can be rural to urban, or between states. Push factors are poverty and lack of jobs; pull factors are jobs and services.
  • Social security covers pensions, insurance and welfare for workers and the poor.
  • The Constitution's Directive Principles ask the State to improve public health, nutrition and the standard of living (Article 47).

Exam traps

  • 1. IMR vs MMR: IMR is per 1,000 live births; MMR is per 1,00,000 live births.
  • 2. Sex ratio in India means females per 1,000 males, not males per 100 females.
  • 3. Literacy counts only persons aged 7 and above; children below 7 are not counted as literate.
  • 4. Child sex ratio is for ages 0-6, not 0-14.
  • 5. HDI uses GNI per capita, not GDP, and uses PPP; it is not just an income index.
  • 6. Birth rate is per 1,000 population; TFR is children per woman.
  • 7. Growth is not the same as development; growth is about output, development includes well-being.
  • 8. The UNDP publishes HDI; do not confuse it with the World Bank or the WHO.

One-liners

  • 1. The Census in India is held every ten years.
  • 2. The first synchronous census of India was in 1881.
  • 3. Population density is persons per square kilometre.
  • 4. India's sex ratio is counted as females per 1,000 males.
  • 5. Child sex ratio covers children aged 0-6.
  • 6. A person aged 7 or above who can read and write with understanding is literate.
  • 7. IMR is deaths under 1 year per 1,000 live births.
  • 8. MMR is maternal deaths per 1,00,000 live births.
  • 9. The replacement-level TFR is about 2.1.
  • 10. HDI has three dimensions: health, education and income.
  • 11. The HDI was introduced by Mahbub ul Haq with UNDP in 1990.
  • 12. The Gini coefficient measures inequality and ranges from 0 to 1.

Practice questions

  1. How often is the Census held in India?

    1. Every 5 years
    2. Every 20 years
    3. Every 15 years
    4. Every 10 years
    Answer

    D. Every 10 years

    The Census is decennial, held every ten years.

  2. Population density is defined as the number of persons per

    1. Village
    2. Square kilometre of land area
    3. Hectare of cultivated land
    4. Household
    Answer

    B. Square kilometre of land area

    Density is persons per square kilometre of land area.

  3. In India, the sex ratio is expressed as the number of

    1. Males per 100 females
    2. Females per 1,000 males
    3. Females per 100 males
    4. Males per 1,000 females
    Answer

    B. Females per 1,000 males

    Indian Census counts females per 1,000 males.

  4. The child sex ratio refers to the age group of

    1. 0-3 years
    2. 0-14 years
    3. 0-18 years
    4. 0-6 years
    Answer

    D. 0-6 years

    Child sex ratio covers children aged 0 to 6.

  5. For the Census, a person is treated as literate if aged

    1. 5 years and above
    2. 6 years and above
    3. 7 years and above
    4. 10 years and above
    Answer

    C. 7 years and above

    The Census counts those aged 7+ who can read and write with understanding.

  6. Infant Mortality Rate is measured per

    1. 10,000 live births
    2. 1,00,000 live births
    3. 1,000 live births
    4. 100 live births
    Answer

    C. 1,000 live births

    IMR is infant deaths per 1,000 live births.

  7. Maternal Mortality Ratio is measured per

    1. 1,000 live births
    2. 10,00,000 live births
    3. 10,000 live births
    4. 1,00,000 live births
    Answer

    D. 1,00,000 live births

    MMR is maternal deaths per 1,00,000 live births.

  8. The replacement-level Total Fertility Rate is about

    1. 1.0
    2. 2.1
    3. 3.0
    4. 1.5
    Answer

    B. 2.1

    A TFR near 2.1 keeps the population stable over time.

  9. The Human Development Index is published by

    1. IMF
    2. UNDP
    3. WHO
    4. World Bank
    Answer

    B. UNDP

    HDI appears in the UNDP's Human Development Report.

  10. Which person is associated with the creation of the Human Development Index?

    1. Amartya Sen alone
    2. Morris D. Morris
    3. Simon Kuznets
    4. Mahbub ul Haq
    Answer

    D. Mahbub ul Haq

    Mahbub ul Haq developed the HDI idea with Sen's thinking behind it.

  11. Which is NOT a dimension of the HDI?

    1. Standard of living
    2. Education
    3. Industrial output
    4. Health
    Answer

    C. Industrial output

    HDI uses health, education and income; industrial output is not included.

  12. The Gini coefficient is used to measure

    1. Fertility
    2. Literacy
    3. Inflation
    4. Inequality
    Answer

    D. Inequality

    Gini ranges from 0 (equality) to 1 (inequality).

  13. Natural growth rate of population equals

    1. Birth rate plus migration
    2. Birth rate minus death rate
    3. Birth rate plus death rate
    4. Death rate minus migration
    Answer

    B. Birth rate minus death rate

    Natural growth = birth rate - death rate, without migration.

  14. Which institute leads the National Family Health Survey?

    1. IIM Ahmedabad
    2. NIRD Hyderabad
    3. IIPS Mumbai
    4. ISI Kolkata
    Answer

    C. IIPS Mumbai

    The International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, leads NFHS.

  15. Article 21A of the Constitution provides free and compulsory education to children aged

    1. 3 to 6 years
    2. 6 to 18 years
    3. 6 to 14 years
    4. 14 to 18 years
    Answer

    C. 6 to 14 years

    Article 21A covers ages 6 to 14.

  16. The first synchronous census covering the whole of India was held in

    1. 1901
    2. 1881
    3. 1951
    4. 1872
    Answer

    B. 1881

    The 1881 census was the first synchronous one.

  17. Which one measures deaths in the first 28 days of life per 1,000 live births?

    1. Under-five mortality rate
    2. Infant mortality rate
    3. Crude death rate
    4. Neonatal mortality rate
    Answer

    D. Neonatal mortality rate

    Neonatal deaths occur within 28 days of birth.

  18. The PQLI (Physical Quality of Life Index) does NOT include

    1. Per capita income
    2. Infant mortality
    3. Basic literacy
    4. Life expectancy
    Answer

    A. Per capita income

    PQLI excludes income; it uses IMR, life expectancy and literacy.

  19. The HDI uses which measure for the standard-of-living dimension?

    1. Bank deposits per person
    2. GDP growth rate
    3. GNI per capita in PPP terms
    4. Consumption of cereals
    Answer

    C. GNI per capita in PPP terms

    It uses gross national income per capita in PPP terms.

  20. A rise in national output without change in health and education is best described as

    1. Human development
    2. Economic growth
    3. Sustainable development
    4. Social security
    Answer

    B. Economic growth

    Growth is about output; development is wider.

  21. Which index compares the HDI of women and men?

    1. Gender Inequality Index
    2. Poverty Gap Index
    3. Gini index
    4. Gender Development Index
    Answer

    D. Gender Development Index

    GDI compares female and male HDI values.

  22. Which scheme gives cash help to mothers for institutional delivery?

    1. Janani Suraksha Yojana
    2. POSHAN Abhiyaan
    3. Mid-Day Meal
    4. Mission Indradhanush
    Answer

    A. Janani Suraksha Yojana

    JSY promotes institutional delivery with cash support.

  23. Stunting means low

    1. Head size for age
    2. Height for age
    3. Weight for age
    4. Weight for height
    Answer

    B. Height for age

    Stunting is low height for age; wasting is low weight for height.

  24. Which of the following is a correct pair of indicator and unit?

    1. TFR - per 1,000 population
    2. IMR - per 1,00,000 live births
    3. MMR - per 1,00,000 live births
    4. Birth rate - per woman
    Answer

    C. MMR - per 1,00,000 live births

    MMR is per 1,00,000 live births.

  25. Under the demographic transition model, rapid population growth occurs mainly in the stage where

    1. Birth and death rates are both high
    2. Birth rate is high and death rate falls fast
    3. Both rates are low
    4. Death rate rises
    Answer

    B. Birth rate is high and death rate falls fast

    In the early transition stage the death rate falls first while births stay high.

  26. Which statement about the Census is correct? 1. It is conducted by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner. 2. It is held every five years.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    It is run by the Registrar General and is held every ten years.

  27. Consider these statements on literacy. 1. Children below 7 are counted as literate if they can read. 2. The Census counts literacy for persons aged 7 and above.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Only persons aged 7+ are classified for literacy.

  28. Consider these statements on HDI. 1. It has three dimensions. 2. It is released by the World Bank.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    HDI has three dimensions and is released by UNDP.

  29. Consider these statements. 1. Per capita income can hide inequality. 2. A high per capita income always means high human development.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Per capita income is an average and does not guarantee well-being.

  30. Consider these statements on the Gini coefficient. 1. A value of 0 means perfect equality. 2. A value of 1 means perfect equality.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Zero is perfect equality; one is perfect inequality.

  31. Consider these statements. 1. The Sample Registration System gives estimates of birth rate and IMR. 2. NFHS gives data on child nutrition.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both statements are correct.

  32. Consider these statements on sex ratio. 1. India counts it as females per 1,000 males. 2. Child sex ratio covers ages 0-14.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Child sex ratio covers ages 0-6, not 0-14.

  33. Consider these statements. 1. Sustainable development protects the needs of future generations. 2. The SDGs are 17 in number.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both statements are correct.

  34. Match the pair of term and meaning correctly.

    1. Dependency ratio - female to male ratio
    2. Replacement TFR - 3.5
    3. Wasting - low height for age
    4. Neonatal - first 28 days of life
    Answer

    D. Neonatal - first 28 days of life

    Neonatal refers to the first 28 days of life.

  35. A state shows high literacy but a low child sex ratio. This suggests that

    1. Education has fully removed gender bias
    2. Literacy alone may not end discrimination against girls
    3. Sex ratio is not a social indicator
    4. Both indicators measure income
    Answer

    B. Literacy alone may not end discrimination against girls

    A low child sex ratio signals bias that literacy alone may not remove.

  36. A country has high income per head but poor health and education. Its HDI is likely to be

    1. Exactly equal to income rank
    2. Zero
    3. Higher than its income rank suggests
    4. Lower than its income rank suggests
    Answer

    D. Lower than its income rank suggests

    HDI also counts health and education, so it pulls the rank down.

  37. A population with a large working-age share can gain a demographic dividend only if

    1. Migration is stopped
    2. Death rates rise
    3. Birth rates rise sharply
    4. Enough jobs and skills are available
    Answer

    D. Enough jobs and skills are available

    The dividend needs jobs and skills for the large working-age group.

  38. Why is per capita income a poor measure of well-being by itself?

    1. It is always negative
    2. It is an average that ignores distribution
    3. It counts only the rich
    4. It excludes output
    Answer

    B. It is an average that ignores distribution

    An average can hide wide gaps between people.

  39. If a woman on average has 2.1 children over her lifetime, the population is at

    1. Rapid growth
    2. Demographic collapse
    3. Replacement level
    4. Negative growth
    Answer

    C. Replacement level

    TFR of about 2.1 is the replacement level.

  40. Which measure looks at poverty through health, education and living standards rather than income alone?

    1. Gini coefficient
    2. Sex ratio
    3. Dependency ratio
    4. Multidimensional Poverty Index
    Answer

    D. Multidimensional Poverty Index

    MPI is a non-income measure of poverty.

  41. The dependency ratio compares

    1. Urban and rural people
    2. Males and females
    3. Literate and illiterate people
    4. Dependents with the working-age group
    Answer

    D. Dependents with the working-age group

    It compares children and old people with the working-age group.

  42. Which change would raise life expectancy at birth most directly?

    1. Fall in infant mortality
    2. Rise in literacy only
    3. Rise in urban density
    4. Rise in per capita income only
    Answer

    A. Fall in infant mortality

    Fewer infant deaths raise the average years lived at birth.

  43. The capability approach to development is associated with

    1. Mahbub ul Haq
    2. Corrado Gini
    3. Amartya Sen
    4. Morris D. Morris
    Answer

    C. Amartya Sen

    Sen argued development means expanding real freedoms and abilities.

  44. The Census in India is carried out under the Ministry of

    1. Finance
    2. Home Affairs
    3. Education
    4. Health and Family Welfare
    Answer

    B. Home Affairs

    The Registrar General and Census Commissioner works under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

  45. Which statement about TFR is correct? 1. It is the average number of children a woman would have in her life. 2. It is counted per 1,000 live births.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    TFR is children per woman, not a rate per 1,000 live births.

Page 1 of 1
‹
›