The Indus Valley Civilization: Unraveling the History, Architecture, Art, and Culture of Harappan Civilization for UPSC Aspirants”

INTRODUCTION

The Indus Valley Civilization or IVC, Also known as Harappan Civilization is one of the four ancient civilizations of the old world. With its well-planned architecture, scientific innovations, and art, it surely was on par with other contemporary civilizations. Starting from Mehrgarh at around 7000 BCE, its history reflects one of the first instances of urbanization in the Indian Subcontinent.

Origin

The prehistory of Harappan culture starts with Bhirrana, Haryana,  an Indus Valley civilization site from 7500 BCE.  Mehrgarh, a Neolithic site in present-day Pakistan is of much significance too. With one of the earliest instances of agriculture in the sub-continent, Mehrgarh was populated since 7000 BCE. 

Extent 

Indus Valley civilization was spread across the western area of the subcontinent. It encompassed an area from Baluchistan in the west to western Uttar Pradesh in the east and from upper reaches of the tributaries of the Indus, that is, parts of Afghanistan in the north to Gujarat and northern Maharashtra in the South.

1. Easternmost site:-  Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh 
2. Southernmost site:- Daimabad, Maharashtra
3. Westernmost site:- Sutkagan Dor, Baluchistan, Pakistan
4. Northernmost site:- Manda, Jammu, and Kashmir

Although the archaeological site of Shortugai, Afghanistan seems to be much influenced by the Indus Valley civilization as well.

Phases

Pre Harappan

Sites such as Bhirrana, Mehrgarh, and Banawali represent early Harappan or pre-Harappan settlements.

Early Harappan

• 3300 BCE to 2600 BCE
• Also known as Hakra Phase.
• Indus Valley script found from 3000 BCE.
• Agriculture – Dates, Wheat, Barley 
• Trade networks established.
• Urban planning suggests centralised authority.
• Examples :- Bhirrana, Mehrgarh 

Mature Harappan

• 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE
• Also known as the Kot Diji era
• Earlier settlements evolving into big cities
• Flourishing trade with other contemporary civilisations from the old world.
• Examples:- Mohenjo Daro, Harappa 

Late Harappan 

• 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE
• People migrated outside the cities
• Decline of the Civilization.
• However, some evidence shows that Harappan culture persisted until 1000- 900 BCE
• Examples:- Kudwala, Bet Dwaraka, Daimabad 

Urban Planning and Architecture 

Harappa Civilization is known for its extensive urban planning and well-planned architecture. Here are the key features of it:-

Planning of cities 

• Well planned cities
• Roads that meet at right angles
• Grid system, Straight roads city divided into sectors, sub-sectors, etc.
• Cities were neatly arranged into sectors like the citadel and the lower quarters. Places of public importance and houses of wealthy elites are found in the citadel.
• Lower quarters usually had only houses, which belonged to commoners and artisans.
• There are various other divisions of the cities found at different sites.
• Huge fortifications and boundary walls around the whole city have also been found in some places like Sutkagan Dor and Dholavira.
• Gateways are found in some places. These are of two types, for ceremonial purposes, and for actual usage.
• The divisions within the cities are more prominently found in urban metropolitan settlements like Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. It’s less prominent in rural settlements.
• The use of burnt bricks is remarkable since contemporary Egyptian civilization used dried bricks.

Water and sewage management 

• Excellent water management systems. Indus Valley people were excellent in hydraulic engineering. Rainwater harvesting is evident in some sites. Brick wells are found at some sites.
• Well-planned, well-built, and closed drainage system. Private drains were connected to small drains, which were connected to large drains. These larger drains carried the water from the whole city to some outside location or a pond. Drains were sometimes covered with stones or bricks. Toilets have also been found in homes at some sites.
• Large structures like the great bath of Mohenjo Daro were constructed. It is evident that the Indus Valley people valued water. The great bath of Mohenjo Daro was probably used for ceremonial and religious purposes. It is one of the first manmade ponds of such a large scale.
• There are evidences of dams at sites. Shortugai also has some canals. It was significant for the agricultural activities conducted by the people.
• The dockyard at Lothal, Gujarat, one of the first such structures, is an engineering Marvel and is a testimonial of the glorious architectural abilities of the civilization. Its purpose was to host the ships.
• Rainwater harvesting and storage are also seen at some sites. The slope of the ground was effectively utilized in the man-made waterways.

Houses

• Houses are single-storeyed or in some cases, double to triple-storeyed.
• Houses were made out of baked bricks, a significant achievement. However, in some places like Dholavira, they’re made up of stones.
• Houses were built for utilitarian purposes instead of aesthetic elements.
• There are private wells found in some houses, otherwise, people used communal wells.
• Toilets with sewers have been found in houses at some sites.
• The houses in the same sector are often identical in nature, given that the cities were planned beforehand.
• The houses found in the citadel are found to be larger than those found in the lower quarters.
• Houses usually opened only to inner courtyards and small lanes rather than big roads.

Non Residential Architecture

• Granaries were made to store the food grains. The granary at Mohenjo Daro is well-built.
• Baths and water tanks, also wells have been found. Water tanks may have been used for ceremonial and religious purposes.
• Dockyards have been found at trading centers.
• It is important to note that there are no big temples or any religious architectural structures to be found.  Possibly the Indus Valley people worshipped nature.
• Fire altars have been discovered.
• Gateways for cities have been found.

Society and Economy

•  Egalitarianism

Not much evidence is found regarding social discrimination in Indus Valley settlements. Though there is a presence of Citadel in metropolitan cities, the houses in lower quarters are more or less homogeneously made. This suggests the equal status of the residents of the city.

• No Evidence of a Ruler

There is no evidence found suggesting monarchy. There is a possibility that the cities were ruled by merchant guilds rather than having a single ruler. Other theories, such as the cities being ruled by priest-kings have also been formulated.

• Language

The language spoken by the Indus Valley people remains unknown. Various theories regarding the language have been proposed. One theory suggests a Dravidian language was been spoken in the culture, while another theory suggests a lost language. Identifications with a para Munda or Austroasiatic or indo european language have been proposed.

•  Script

Various symbols have been found on seals, copper plates, pottery, weapons, etc. These inscriptions present us with what is thought of as Harappan script. However, these inscriptions are undeciphered.  It is unknown whether these symbols were part of a writing system or not. We can gain more information about the civilization and its language if the Harappan script is deciphered.

What seems to be the world’s first signboard was found at Dholavira.

• Trade

Harappans traded with other civilisations like Mesopotamian, Egypt, and possibly ancient China. Mentions of the Harappan people are found in Ancient texts from the Sumerians,  Indus Valley people are supposedly referred to as ‘Meluha’.

Various things related to trade such as an ivory scale with marked units, the smallest standardized division marked being  1.704 mm, and the smallest marked division for the bronze age. Standardized weights have also been discovered. Harappan engineers probably followed a decimal system.

Indus Valley people may have traded in agricultural goods, beads made out of precious stones and carnelian and steatite, jewellery, sea shell inlays, cotton cloth, ivory, metals like copper, pearls, precious stones etc.

They may have imported precious stones and metals from other contemporary civilisations.

Harappan beads have been recovered from the archaeological sites in Central Asia and West Asia. A full jewellery set, thought to have Harappan origins, has also been found. The dockyard at Lothal points to maritime trade. Several depictions of boats on the seals support that. Also, models of bullock carts suggest land trade too.

• Modes of transport 

People may have walked on foot, given the prominence of small lanes in the cities. 

Terracotta figurines of ships from Kot Diji, various seals depicting rowboats, and the dockyard at Lothal point out at utilisation of waterways for transport and trade.

Bronze and terracotta models of bullock carts and the chariot of Sinauli suggest transportation through land routes.

• Agriculture and food

Harappans knew agriculture. Harappan settlements are usually found in the vicinity of water resources. Harappans used river sediments for farming. The use of plough was known. Harappan diet may have constituted of grains like barley and wheat, meat, vegetables, and fruits like dates. Spices like turmeric and ginger are also known to be used. Harappans were also the first people in the old world to cultivate cotton. 

Animal husbandry was practised.

Harappans cultivated crops like 

• Wheat
• Barley
• Cotton
• Peas
• Sesame
• Lentils
• Mustard
• Brinjals

Attire

Though Harappans were amongst the first producers of cotton fabric in the old world, scanty extant pieces of it are found. More information is gathered from the seals, terracotta and bronze figurines and impressions of fabric left on terracotta and other mediums.  The attires worn by the priest-king of Mohenjo Daro suggest that at least the elites would have worn a stole similar to today’s Ajrak. A piece of fabric would have been worn as a lower garment. Mother goddess figurines suggest that a lower garment of fabric draped similarly to a short sarong or lungi was worn. Women didn’t necessarily wear an upper garment. Instead, we find elaborate headpieces, necklaces,  oversized earrings and multiple bangles, like those worn by the bronze dancing girl. 

The fillet worn by the priest-king around the head and the horned figurines on the seals show that men too wore elaborate headpieces.

Jewellery is known to be worn and is found.

Beaded necklaces made out of terracotta, carnelian, steatite, agate, and shell beads are found. Gold jewellery is also found. The oversized earrings, necklaces and bangles in mother goddess figurines point towards the usage of jewellery. Similar jewellery is found in the area to date.

Make-up-related materials like sticks used to apply Kajala or Kohl, small caskets and some jars to store Kajala or kohl, bronze mirrors, ivory combs, cinnabar pigment Sindura, bronze plucking devices, lip colouring materials have been found. The neatly kept beard of the priest-king figure suggests that males paid attention to aesthetics. Bronze razors have been found. Some figures found at Nausharo, Pakistan show red pigment being used in parting of hair, just like the contemporary Sindura.

• Little evidence of armed power

There is very little evidence of armed power. It seems that though there were warriors in the civilisation, the Indus Valley people didn’t engage in wars and focused more on trade. 

Art and Culture

Many artefacts have been found in IVC sites. This includes Pottery, bronze idols, terracotta figurines, seals etc.

Pottery

Harappan pottery includes a variety of utensils, from pots to jars. Numerous designs have been painted or engraved over, with repetitive patterns. It was made in various  colours like red, black, orange etc. 

There are various variations in patterns, and styles of pottery according to the place and the time. These help us to identify the period of their manufacturing.

Bronze items 

Numerous bronze idols have been found at Indus Valley civilisation sites. The so-called Dancing Girl figurine of Mohenjo Daro is perhaps the most popular. It is not stylistic but natural in its artistic approach. It is made with the lost wax technique, which shows the amount of in-depth knowledge of the art the Indus Valley people had. A chariot from Daimabad too is remarkable. Bronze mirrors, utensils and other items made out of bronze also have been discovered.

Stone figurines

A number of stone figurines have been unearthed in Indus Valley civilisation sites. One of the most significant figurines is Mohenjo Daro’s supposed Priest-King. The sculpture represents a bearded male, With a cloak with drilled trefoil and fillets around his head, also having an armband. It is carved skillfully out of great precision. Two male torsos, one in Limestone and another in Red Jasper show a great amount of precision and skill in art, comparable to the classical Greek structures. 

Terracotta

Terracotta was, perhaps, the most popular medium for figurines. From animals to Humans, a variety of subjects and things have been shaped out of terracotta.

Toys like rattles, bullock carts etc have been made out of terracotta.

Animals like cows, bulls, monkeys, bears, and dogs have been made out of terracotta. It is uncertain however if the figures were made for religious purposes or not.

Numerous mother goddess figurines with elaborate headpieces and jewellery have been found in Indus Valley civilisation sites. It’s unclear if these were made for worship or not, but give us an idea of the religious life of the Indus Valley people. It is thought that the Indus Valley people may have worshipped a mother goddess.

Bead making

Bead making was an important form of art in the Indus Valley civilization. Beads were made out of terracotta, carnelian, steatite, agate, shell etc. They were used in making necklaces, bangles, girdles etc. Harappan beads were exported to other places too. Indus Valley civilization beads have been found in sites from central and western Asia. Bead-making workshops have been discovered at Harappan sites.

Steatite seals

Steatite seals depicting various subjects have been found. These seals give us information about the lives and beliefs of the Indus Valley people. Seals with peepal trees, animals like zebu cattle and rhinoceros, boats and other items, and also human figurines have been found. One of the most significant seals of them is the Pashupati seal. It depicts a human figure, identified by John Marshall as Pashupati Shiva, seated in a cross-legged position similar to yogic poses, with a horned headdress and bangles in his hands. He is surrounded by animals like deer, a tiger, a water buffalo, rhinoceros and an elephant. 

Seals also have the undeciphered Indus Valley script on them.

Religious Beliefs and Philosophy 

• Mother goddess

There are various female figurines found in Indus Valley civilisation sites. These figurines, assumed to be used for worship, point at a Mother goddess worshipping population.

•  Pashupati Shiva

The seal of a seated deity in a yogic pose is often identified with Pashupati Mahadeva or Proto Shiva. Several seals with a similar iconography of a deity with a horned headpiece sitting in a Yogasana-like pose.

• Seals

Seals have been found depicting a deity inside a peepal tree or a unicorn-like horned animal. Seals have been found depicting various motifs thought to be religious.

• Lingas and Yonis

Various oval-shaped limestones, called Linga and Yoni by some historians like John Marshall have been found.

• Great bath

It seems that the Harappans valued purity and water had significance in their culture. The great bath of Mohenjo Daro is supposed to be utilized for ceremonial and religious purposes. Their liking for sanitation and cleanliness finds similarities in Dharmic faiths.

• Trees 

It is possible that the Indus Valley people worshiped trees since seals depicting peepal trees have been found. Peepal tree continues to hold significance in the culture of the subcontinent to this day.

• Animal worship

The prominence of animal depictions in the seals may point towards animal worship. A unicorn-like horned animal is also found to be constantly depicted in seals. Evidence of human-cooked food is found on the cattle teeth from the site. Cattle feeding is still a practice in the sub-continent.

• Status of women

Not much is known about the status of women in Harappan culture owing to the lack of textual evidence since the Indus script is undeciphered. However, through various bronzes and terracotta figurines, one can estimate that women may have enjoyed a significant place in the social structure.

Decline

After the late Harappan phase, the Indus Valley civilization gradually started to decline. Cities were abandoned and people moved elsewhere. Various reasons are given for it.

No innovation

It is observed that in the late Harappan era, society did not progress scientifically as much as it did in the early and mature Harappan era. 

Geographical reasons

It’s observed that the Rivers in the area where the Harappan civilization flourished changed their course. Hence the people had to shift elsewhere. Change in monsoon patterns also seems to be a reason. 

Genetic evidence suggests that the Harappans may have moved southwards. Late Harappan sites found in Maharashtra may verify that.

List of Important Harappan Sites

Harappa

• Banks of Ravi River, Pakistan.
• Excavated by Dayaram Sahni in 1921.
• Known for:- Being the first site of the civilisation to be excavated, lending its name to the civilisation. Also known for the sandstone statues of human anatomy, bullock carts and granaries.

Mohenjo Daro

• Banks of Indus River, Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan.
• Excavated by R.D. Bannerjee in 1922.
• Known for The Great Bath, the Bronze dancing girl, the steatite statue of the supposed Priest-King, the steatite seal of Pashupati Mahadeva, a piece of cotton cloth.

Sutkagan Dor

• Banks of Dast River, Balochistan, Pakistan.
• Excavated by Stein in 1929.
• Known for being the westernmost site of the Indus Valley civilisation. Also known as a trade point between the Indus Valley civilisation and Babylon.

Chanhudaro

• Banks of Indus River, Pakistan.
• Excavated by N. G. Majumdar in 1931.
• Known for Bead making workshop, evidence of dog and cat.

Kalibangan

• Banks of Ghaggar River, Rajasthan
• Excavated by Ghose in 1953.
• Known for its fire altars, wooden plough and camel bones.

Lothal

• Banks of Bhogwa River, near the Gulf of Cambay, Gujarat
• Excavated by R.Rao in 1953.
• Known for the first dockyard for ships, the first manmade port, chess playing, Rice husk, and fire Altar.

Surkotada

• Gujarat
• Excavated by J. P. Joshi in 1964
• Known for its bones of horses, a rare find in Indus Valley civilisation and beads.

Banavali

• Hisar district, Haryana
• Excavated by R. S. Bisht in 1974
• Known for its evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture. Also known for its barley and beads.

Dholavira

• Rann of Kutch, Gujarat
• Excavated by R. S. Bisht in 1985.
• Known for its Water harvesting system, Water reservoir, and the earliest supposed signboard in the Indus Valley script. A UNESCO World Heritage site. Only the Harappan site is divided into three parts.

Summary 

The Indus Valley civilization has shaped the culture of the subcontinent. It is important in many aspects such as its innovations, urban planning, trade etc. The Indus Valley civilization flourished in the western part of the subcontinent.

It was ahead of its contemporary civilisations in many aspects. Its innovative aspects have continued in Indian culture. Studying it gives us an insight into how India was formed as a nation and gives us ideas on urban plannin