12. EARLY REGIONAL KINGDOMS (SOUTH & DECCAN INDIA, c. 300 CE – 1000 CE)

12. EARLY REGIONAL KINGDOMS (SOUTH & DECCAN INDIA, c. 300 CE – 1000 CE)

While North India saw the Guptas and Harsha, South India and the Deccan saw the rise of powerful regional dynasties that shaped early medieval Indian art, temple architecture, and trade.

12.1 The Pallavas (c. 275 CE – 897 CE)

• Ruled from Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu); rivals of the Chalukyas of Badami for control of the Deccan/Tamil region.
• Greatest ruler: Mahendravarman I (c. 600-630 CE) — also a poet/playwright (wrote the satire "Mattavilasa Prahasana"); pioneered rock-cut temple architecture.
• Narasimhavarman I "Mamalla" (c. 630-668 CE) — defeated Chalukya king Pulakeshin II and even briefly captured the Chalukya capital Vatapi (Badami), earning the title "Vatapikonda"; built the famous Shore Temple and the Five Rathas (Pancha Rathas) at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) — UNESCO World Heritage monuments; established a port town at Mahabalipuram, promoting maritime trade with Southeast Asia.
• Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha) — built the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram — a fine example of Dravidian style structural temple architecture.
• Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and described it favorably.
• The Pallava era is significant for the development and spread of the Dravidian temple architecture style and the Grantha script (which influenced later South Indian/Southeast Asian scripts).
• Last significant Pallava ruler was defeated by the rising Chola dynasty under Aditya I in the late 9th century CE.

12.2 The Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi) (c. 543 CE – 753 CE)

• Founder: Pulakeshin I — established capital at Vatapi (Badami), Karnataka.
• Greatest ruler: Pulakeshin II (c. 610–642 CE) — famous for defeating Harshavardhana at the Narmada (confirmed by the Aihole inscription, composed by court poet Ravikirti), and for his conflict with the Pallavas — he was eventually defeated and killed by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I, who captured Vatapi (c. 642 CE).
• Known for rock-cut and structural temple architecture at Badami, Aihole ("cradle of Indian temple architecture"), and Pattadakal (UNESCO site — shows a blend of Nagara/North Indian and Dravidian/South Indian temple styles, e.g., Virupaksha Temple).
• The Badami Chalukya line was eventually overthrown by the Rashtrakutas under Dantidurga (c. 753 CE).

12.3 The Rashtrakutas (c. 753 CE – 982 CE)

• Founder: Dantidurga — overthrew the last Chalukya ruler of Badami; established capital at Manyakheta (Malkhed), Karnataka.
• Greatest ruler: Krishna I — built the magnificent rock-cut Kailasa Temple at Ellora (Maharashtra) — carved entirely out of a single rock, dedicated to Shiva, considered a marvel of rock-cut architecture and among the largest monolithic structures in the world.
• Amoghavarsha I (c. 814–878 CE) — long-reigning, peace-loving, patron of literature (wrote "Kavirajamarga", earliest available work on Kannada poetics/rhetoric); also patronized Jainism.
• Rashtrakutas were involved in the Tripartite Struggle for control of Kannauj, along with the Gurjara-Pratiharas (North/West India) and the Palas (Bengal/Bihar) — a major power struggle of early medieval India (8th-10th centuries CE) that ultimately exhausted all three dynasties.
• Arab traveler Al-Masudi and others noted Rashtrakuta kings among the greatest rulers of the world at the time.
• Rashtrakutas were eventually overthrown by the resurgent Chalukyas of Kalyani (Later/Western Chalukyas) around 973-982 CE.

12.4 The Cholas — Beginnings (Medieval Cholas from c. 850 CE)

• After the earlier Sangam-age Cholas declined, the dynasty revived under Vijayalaya Chola (c. 848 CE), who captured Thanjavur (Tanjore) from the Muttaraiyars and made it his capital — traditionally taken as the beginning of the "Imperial" or "Medieval" Chola line.
• Aditya I (c. 871–907 CE) — son of Vijayalaya; defeated the last significant Pallava ruler Aparajita, effectively ending Pallava power and absorbing Tondaimandalam (Pallava core territory) into the Chola kingdom.
• Parantaka I (c. 907–955 CE) — expanded further, though faced setbacks against the Rashtrakutas (Battle of Takkolam, c. 949 CE, where Chola forces were defeated by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III).
• The truly imperial phase of Chola power (with rulers like Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, extensive temple building like the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, and naval expeditions to Southeast Asia) begins just after 985 CE — at the very edge of or just after the "ancient India" period as conventionally defined (this marks the transition into the early medieval/imperial Chola era).

12.5 The Vakatakas (c. 250 CE – 500 CE) — Contemporary of the Guptas in the Deccan

• Ruled central India/Deccan (Vidarbha region); contemporaneous with and matrimonially linked to the Guptas.
• Founder: Vindhyashakti; important ruler Pravarasena I.
• Rudrasena II married Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II — this alliance gave the Guptas indirect influence over the Deccan and secured trade routes to western ports.
• Patronized Ajanta cave paintings in their later phase (some of the finest Ajanta murals belong to the Vakataka period, under King Harishena).

12.6 The Gurjara-Pratiharas (c. 8th – 11th century CE)

• Powerful dynasty of western/northern India, capital eventually at Kannauj (captured from the Ayudha dynasty).
• Greatest ruler: Mihira Bhoja (Bhoja I) — devout Vaishnavite, title "Adivaraha"; expanded the kingdom significantly; successor Mahendrapala I also notable.
• Constant participant (with Rashtrakutas and Palas) in the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj — control of Kannauj was seen as symbolic control of North India (the Gangetic heartland).
• Arab traveller Al-Masudi and Sulaiman described the Pratihara army (strong cavalry) favourably.
• Later weakened by repeated Rashtrakuta invasions and, eventually, by the raids of Mahmud of Ghazni (early 11th century, marking transition to the medieval period).

12.7 The Palas (c. 750 CE – 1161 CE)

• Ruled Bengal and Bihar; unusual for being elected to kingship (per tradition) — founder Gopala was elected by regional chiefs to end anarchy ("Matsyanyaya" — anarchy/lawlessness, literally "law of the fish," i.e., big fish eating small fish).
• Dharmapala and Devapala were the most powerful Pala rulers; extended influence into Kannauj at times during the Tripartite Struggle.
• Great patrons of Buddhism (Mahayana and later Vajrayana) — founded/patronized the Vikramashila and Odantapuri universities/monasteries; also patronized Nalanda's continuation.
• Pala-era art (Pala school of sculpture — bronze and stone Buddhist images) influenced Southeast Asian and Tibetan Buddhist art.

Key Facts / Quick Revision — Early Regional Kingdoms

• Pallavas (Kanchipuram) vs Chalukyas (Badami/Vatapi) — long rivalry
• Narasimhavarman I (Pallava) captured Vatapi; built Shore Temple & Pancha Rathas, Mahabalipuram
• Pulakeshin II (Chalukya) defeated Harsha at Narmada (Aihole inscription); later defeated by Pallavas
• Rashtrakutas (Manyakheta) — Krishna I built Kailasa Temple, Ellora (monolithic rock-cut)
• Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj: Rashtrakutas vs Gurjara-Pratiharas vs Palas
• Chola revival: Vijayalaya Chola (848 CE) captured Thanjavur; Aditya I ended Pallava power
• Aihole = "cradle of Indian temple architecture"; Pattadakal = UNESCO site, blend of Nagara & Dravida styles