3. VEDIC AGE

3. VEDIC AGE

3.1 Early Vedic (Rigvedic) Period — c. 1500 BCE – 1000 BCE

• Aryans — believed to have entered India from Central Asia (Aryan Migration theory, debated); settled in Sapta-Sindhu region (land of seven rivers — Indus and its tributaries + Saraswati).
• Main source: Rigveda — oldest of the four Vedas, collection of hymns (Suktas) in praise of gods, composed in Vedic Sanskrit; has 10 Mandalas; Mandalas 2-7 considered oldest ("Family books"); Mandala 10 contains the Purushasukta (origin of varna system).
• Polity: Tribal, pastoral society; basic unit = Kula (family); several families = Grama; several gramas = Vis; several vis = Jana (tribe). King called Rajan, chosen by tribe, assisted by Sabha and Samiti (assemblies) and Vidatha.
• Economy: Pastoral, cattle-based (cow = Aghnya, "not to be killed"; wealth measured in cattle — "Gomat"); limited agriculture; no caste rigidity in early stage.
• Important tribes/battle: Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna Yuddha) — fought on the river Parushni (Ravi) between King Sudas of the Bharata tribe and a confederacy of ten tribes; Sudas was victorious with the help of priest Vasishtha.
• Religion: Worship of nature gods — Indra (war god, most important, "Purandara" - destroyer of forts), Agni (fire, second most important), Varuna (moral order/water), Surya, Usha, Soma. Worship through yajnas (sacrifices); no idol worship, no temples.
• Society: Patriarchal but women had relatively high status (could attend assemblies, examples: Ghosha, Lopamudra, Apala — women hymn composers); monogamy common; no child marriage, no sati; varna system was flexible/occupation-based initially.

3.2 Later Vedic Period — c. 1000 BCE – 600 BCE

• Aryans expanded eastwards into the Gangetic plains (Kuru-Panchala region).
• Literature: The other three Vedas — Samaveda (music/chants, related to Rigveda), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulas; two recensions - Shukla & Krishna), Atharvaveda (spells, charms, magic, folk traditions); Brahmanas (ritual texts/commentaries), Aranyakas ("forest books", philosophy), Upanishads (philosophical texts, ~108, foundation of Vedanta, concepts of Atman/Brahman); Vedangas (auxiliary sciences).
• Polity: Rise of larger kingdoms; concept of divine kingship emerges; new taxes — Bali, Bhaga, Shulka; officials like Purohita, Senani, Gramani; rituals like Rajasuya (royal consecration), Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice, asserts sovereignty), Vajapeya (chariot race).
• Economy: Agriculture becomes primary (use of iron — "Shyama Ayas"/"Krishna Ayas"); iron ploughshare; expansion into forested Gangetic plains via use of iron tools and fire.
• Society: Varna system becomes rigid — Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra (birth-based, not just occupation); position of women declines (no more assembly participation); child marriage/restrictions increase; Gotra system develops; Ashrama system (Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sannyasa) develops.
• Religion: Complex rituals and sacrifices dominate; rise of priestly (Brahmana) dominance; philosophical shift towards Upanishadic thought (Atman-Brahman unity) — sets stage for later reform movements (Buddhism, Jainism).

Key Facts / Quick Revision — Vedic Age

• Rigveda = oldest text, 10 Mandalas, oldest religious text in the world (among surviving texts)
• Battle of Ten Kings — River Parushni (Ravi); King Sudas (Bharata tribe) won
• 4 Vedas: Rig (hymns), Sama (music), Yajur (rituals), Atharva (magic/spells)
• Later Vedic = iron use, rigid varna, rise of kingdoms, Upanishads (philosophy)
• Ashvamedha yajna = horse sacrifice, symbol of sovereignty
• Gayatri Mantra — dedicated to Savitri, found in Rigveda (Mandala 3)