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School Social Studies Gap Book (Classes VI-X themes) · Chapter 5

Early Life to Settled Life, Mahajanapadas and Early Kingdoms

What to remember

  • Early humans lived by hunting and gathering in the Stone Age; the Neolithic age brought farming, animal rearing, pottery and settled villages.
  • Around the 6th century BCE sixteen Mahajanapadas arose in north India; Magadha became the strongest and led to the Nanda and Mauryan empires. Assaka (on the Godavari) was the Mahajanapada of the south.
  • The Mauryas (Chandragupta, Bindusara, Ashoka) built the first large empire; the Satavahanas ruled much of Andhra and the Deccan; later kingdoms include the Ikshvakus, Guptas and Pallavas.

1. Early humans: from hunting to farming

Early humans were hunter-gatherers. They moved from place to place in search of food, water and shelter. They made tools of stone, wood and bone. The study of the past through objects found by digging is archaeology; the objects are artefacts.

AgeApprox. periodMain features
Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic)Very long, up to about 10,000 years agoHunting and gathering; rough stone tools (hand axes, choppers); discovery of fire; caves and rock shelters
Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic)After the Old Stone AgeSmall, sharp stone tools (microliths); bow and arrow; fishing; taming of the dog
New Stone Age (Neolithic)From about 8,000 to 10,000 years ago in parts of the worldFarming; domestic animals; polished stone tools; pottery; wheel; settled villages
Metal agesLaterCopper and bronze, then iron, used for tools and weapons
  • Fire gave warmth, protection from animals and a way to cook.
  • Rock paintings at Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) show hunting and dancing. In Andhra Pradesh, stone tools and cave remains are known from the Kurnool caves region and Nagarjunakonda.
  • Agriculture: People first sowed wheat and barley in the north-west (Mehrgarh, in present Pakistan, is among the oldest farming sites) and rice in the middle Ganga valley (Koldihwa). They kept sheep, goats and cattle.
  • Settled life: People built huts near fields and rivers, stored grain, made pots, and began to live in villages. Burzahom (Kashmir) is known for pit-dwellings.
  • Megaliths: In the Deccan and south India, big stones were placed over burials in the Iron Age. These are called megalithic burials.
  • Why settled life mattered: Surplus food, crafts, trade, villages, rules and later cities.

Sources of history: Historians use many kinds of evidence. *Inscriptions* are writing on stone or metal; *coins* show rulers, trade and metals; *monuments* such as stupas and temples show art and belief; *literature* such as the Vedas, Jataka stories and the Arthashastra describes life; and foreign travellers' accounts add outside views. Reading the script of the inscriptions (Brahmi was deciphered in the 19th century) opened up the history of Ashoka and the early kingdoms.

2. First cities: the Harappan civilisation

The Harappan (Indus Valley) civilisation flourished about 2600-1900 BCE in the north-west of the subcontinent. Main sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Dholavira, Kalibangan and Rakhigarhi.

  • Planned towns with straight streets, brick houses and covered drains. A "Great Bath" and a granary at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.
  • Seals with pictures and a script not yet understood. Standard weights. Trade with Mesopotamia. Lothal had a dockyard.
  • They used copper, bronze, stone, shell, gold and terracotta. Iron was not used.

3. Vedic period and the beginning of kingdoms

  • Early Vedic period: The Rigveda is the oldest text. People lived by cattle rearing. Tribes were led by a chief (rajan). Assemblies were called sabha and samiti.
  • Later Vedic period: Farming increased, iron tools came into use, and tribes settled to form small states.
  • Rise of janapadas: A *jana* is a tribe; a *janapada* is the land where a tribe settled. Larger ones became Mahajanapadas around the 6th century BCE, with fortified capitals, taxes and armies.

4. The sixteen Mahajanapadas

The usual list: Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vajji (Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Assaka (Ashmaka), Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja.

TypeFeatureExample
MonarchyRuled by a king; rule passed in the familyMagadha, Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa
Gana or sangha (republic)Ruled by an assembly of leadersVajji, Malla
  • Assaka lay on the banks of the Godavari and is the only Mahajanapada of the south of the Vindhyas. Its capital is given as Potana or Potali, near present Bodhan.
  • Avanti had its capital at Ujjain; Kosala at Shravasti and Ayodhya; Vatsa at Kaushambi; Gandhara at Taxila (Takshashila).
  • Magadha was the strongest. Reasons: fertile land between the Ganga and Son, iron ore nearby, forests for elephants, river trade, and strong rulers. Its early capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra.
  • Magadha dynasties: Haryanka (Bimbisara and Ajatashatru), Shishunaga, and the Nandas. The Nanda ruler Mahapadma Nanda was powerful, and the last Nanda was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya.
  • Religions: Mahavira (Jainism) and Gautama Buddha (Buddhism) taught in these centuries, c. 6th-5th century BCE. Buddha was born at Lumbini, attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon at Sarnath and passed away at Kushinagar. His teachings: the four noble truths and the eightfold path, non-violence, and a middle path.
  • Alexander's invasion of the north-west (c. 326 BCE) shook the small states and prepared the way for the Mauryas.

5. The Mauryan empire (c. 321-185 BCE)

  • Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya), author of the Arthashastra. The capital was Pataliputra. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes wrote the *Indica* about his court. Chandragupta made a treaty with Seleucus, a general of Alexander.
  • Bindusara (his son) extended the empire to the south.
  • Ashoka (c. 268-232 BCE) fought the Kalinga war (c. 261 BCE) and was moved by the suffering. He turned to Buddhism and taught Dhamma (a code of kindness, tolerance and moral conduct).
  • Ashoka's messages were carved on rocks and pillars in the Brahmi script and the Prakrit language. In the north-west, edicts used Kharosthi. One of his rock edict sites in Andhra Pradesh is Yerragudi. The Lion Capital of the Sarnath pillar is the national emblem of India; the Ashoka Chakra is on the national flag.
  • Administration: a king helped by ministers; provinces under princes; officers called Mahamatras; spies; a standing army; good roads; taxes on land and trade.
  • Decline: weak successors, financial strain, and distant provinces breaking away. The last Maurya king was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga.

6. The Satavahanas (c. 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE)

The Satavahanas were the first great dynasty of the Andhra and Deccan region, often called the first Andhra empire.

  • Simuka is named as the founder. Gautamiputra Satakarni is regarded as the greatest ruler; Vasishtiputra Pulumavi and Yajna Sri Satakarni also ruled.
  • Capitals: Pratishthana (Paithan) and Dhanyakataka (near Amaravati).
  • Rulers wrote the Prakrit language in the Brahmi script. King Hala is credited with the *Gathasaptashati*, a collection of Prakrit verses.
  • They had flourishing trade with Rome through ports on both coasts. Coins with ships and Satavahana kings' portraits have been found.
  • They supported Buddhism and Brahmanical faiths; the Amaravati Stupa was richly decorated in this period, and Nagarjunakonda was a major Buddhist centre.
  • Queens often mention their own names, and kings used their mother's name as a prefix (such as Gautamiputra).

7. Other early kingdoms in brief

KingdomWhereNotes
IkshvakusKrishna valley, Nagarjunakonda (Vijayapuri)Followed the Satavahanas (c. 3rd-4th century CE); built Buddhist monuments
GuptasNorth IndiaFounded c. 320 CE; Samudragupta and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya); Pataliputra; progress in art, science and literature, with the poet Kalidasa and the mathematician Aryabhata; the Chinese traveller Fa-Hien visited
PallavasKanchipuramRulers like Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I; rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram
Eastern ChalukyasVengi (Andhra)Founded in the 7th century CE, ruled for centuries
Cholas, Cheras, PandyasFar southEarly Tamil kingdoms mentioned in Sangam literature

Classroom angle: Use a timeline strip on the wall and let children place events in order. Show pictures of stone tools, seals, coins and edicts, and ask what they tell us. Link history to the place: find the nearest historic site on a map. Teach cause and effect: why did farming lead to villages?

Exam traps

  • 1. Neolithic means farming and pottery; Palaeolithic means hunting and fire.
  • 2. Assaka is the only southern Mahajanapada and lies on the Godavari.
  • 3. Vajji and Malla were republics; Magadha and Kosala were monarchies.
  • 4. Megasthenes (Indica) was at Chandragupta's court; Fa-Hien visited in Gupta times.
  • 5. Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra; Hala is credited with the Gathasaptashati.
  • 6. Ashoka's edicts are in Brahmi (and Kharosthi in the north-west); not Sanskrit.
  • 7. The Kalinga war changed Ashoka's attitude toward war; it did not end the Mauryan dynasty.
  • 8. Satavahana capitals were Pratishthana and Dhanyakataka; Pataliputra was Mauryan and Gupta.

One-liners

  • 1. Stone Age people lived by hunting and gathering.
  • 2. Fire was discovered in the Old Stone Age.
  • 3. Farming began in the New Stone Age.
  • 4. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro are two big Harappan cities.
  • 5. There were sixteen Mahajanapadas.
  • 6. Magadha's capitals were Rajagriha and later Pataliputra.
  • 7. Assaka was on the Godavari.
  • 8. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan empire.
  • 9. Ashoka fought the Kalinga war.
  • 10. The Sarnath Lion Capital is India's national emblem.
  • 11. The Satavahanas were the first great Andhra dynasty.
  • 12. Nagarjunakonda was an Ikshvaku centre.

Practice questions

  1. Early humans who lived by hunting animals and gathering plants are called

    1. traders
    2. pastoral farmers
    3. craftsmen of cities
    4. hunter-gatherers
    Answer

    D. hunter-gatherers

    They moved in search of food.

  2. The discovery of fire belongs to the

    1. Iron Age
    2. New Stone Age
    3. Gupta period
    4. Old Stone Age
    Answer

    D. Old Stone Age

    Fire was known to Palaeolithic people.

  3. Farming and pottery are mainly associated with the

    1. Old Stone Age
    2. Middle Stone Age
    3. Harappan period only
    4. New Stone Age (Neolithic)
    Answer

    D. New Stone Age (Neolithic)

    Neolithic people grew crops and made pots.

  4. Tiny sharp stone tools used in the Middle Stone Age are called

    1. megaliths
    2. hand axes
    3. microliths
    4. celts
    Answer

    C. microliths

    Micro means small; lithic means stone.

  5. Big stones placed over burials in the Iron Age of south India are called

    1. stupas
    2. microliths
    3. megaliths
    4. edicts
    Answer

    C. megaliths

    Mega means big.

  6. The rock shelter paintings of early humans are well known at

    1. Sarnath
    2. Lothal
    3. Pataliputra
    4. Bhimbetka
    Answer

    D. Bhimbetka

    Bhimbetka is in Madhya Pradesh.

  7. Mehrgarh in present Pakistan is known as a very early centre of

    1. coin making
    2. printing
    3. iron smelting
    4. farming
    Answer

    D. farming

    It shows some of the earliest farming and herding.

  8. Which Harappan site had a dockyard?

    1. Harappa
    2. Rakhigarhi
    3. Lothal
    4. Mohenjo-daro
    Answer

    C. Lothal

    Lothal was a port town.

  9. Which metal was NOT used by the Harappans?

    1. Iron
    2. Gold
    3. Copper
    4. Bronze
    Answer

    A. Iron

    The Harappans did not know iron.

  10. How many Mahajanapadas are listed in early Buddhist texts?

    1. Ten
    2. Eighteen
    3. Twelve
    4. Sixteen
    Answer

    D. Sixteen

    The usual list has sixteen.

  11. Which Mahajanapada was located on the Godavari in the south?

    1. Assaka
    2. Avanti
    3. Kosala
    4. Kamboja
    Answer

    A. Assaka

    Assaka (Ashmaka) was the southern Mahajanapada.

  12. Which of these was a republic (gana-sangha)?

    1. Avanti
    2. Kosala
    3. Vajji
    4. Magadha
    Answer

    C. Vajji

    Vajji was ruled by an assembly of leaders.

  13. The first capital of Magadha was

    1. Ujjain
    2. Rajagriha
    3. Pataliputra
    4. Taxila
    Answer

    B. Rajagriha

    It later shifted to Pataliputra.

  14. Which Mahajanapada had Taxila as its centre of learning and capital?

    1. Matsya
    2. Kuru
    3. Anga
    4. Gandhara
    Answer

    D. Gandhara

    Takshashila was in Gandhara.

  15. Which was a reason for Magadha's rise?

    1. Iron ore and fertile land near the Ganga and Son
    2. Absence of rivers
    3. A long coast
    4. Distance from trade routes
    Answer

    A. Iron ore and fertile land near the Ganga and Son

    Natural resources and rivers helped Magadha.

  16. Buddha gave his first sermon at

    1. Lumbini
    2. Kushinagar
    3. Sarnath
    4. Bodh Gaya
    Answer

    C. Sarnath

    Sarnath is where he taught the first sermon.

  17. The founder of the Mauryan empire was

    1. Ashoka
    2. Chandragupta Maurya
    3. Bindusara
    4. Samudragupta
    Answer

    B. Chandragupta Maurya

    He founded the empire with help from Chanakya.

  18. The Arthashastra is attributed to

    1. Kautilya (Chanakya)
    2. Kalidasa
    3. Megasthenes
    4. Hala
    Answer

    A. Kautilya (Chanakya)

    It is a book on statecraft.

  19. The Greek ambassador at Chandragupta's court who wrote Indica was

    1. Seleucus
    2. Megasthenes
    3. Alexander
    4. Fa-Hien
    Answer

    B. Megasthenes

    Megasthenes visited Pataliputra.

  20. Ashoka's change of heart followed the war with

    1. Gandhara
    2. Magadha
    3. Avanti
    4. Kalinga
    Answer

    D. Kalinga

    The Kalinga war caused huge suffering.

  21. Most of Ashoka's inscriptions are in the

    1. Telugu script
    2. Devanagari script
    3. Brahmi script
    4. Roman script
    Answer

    C. Brahmi script

    Brahmi was used for most edicts.

  22. An Ashokan rock edict site in Andhra Pradesh is

    1. Yerragudi
    2. Girnar
    3. Sarnath
    4. Dhauli
    Answer

    A. Yerragudi

    Yerragudi has Ashokan rock edicts.

  23. The national emblem of India is based on the Lion Capital at

    1. Hampi
    2. Sanchi gateway
    3. Sarnath
    4. Lauriya Nandangarh
    Answer

    C. Sarnath

    The Ashokan pillar at Sarnath has four lions.

  24. The first great dynasty of Andhra and the Deccan region was

    1. Pallava
    2. Satavahana
    3. Chola
    4. Gupta
    Answer

    B. Satavahana

    Satavahanas ruled from about the 1st century BCE.

  25. Which Satavahana ruler is regarded as the greatest?

    1. Hala
    2. Mahendravarman
    3. Simuka
    4. Gautamiputra Satakarni
    Answer

    D. Gautamiputra Satakarni

    He is seen as the greatest Satavahana king.

  26. The Gathasaptashati is credited to

    1. Hala
    2. Kalidasa
    3. Aryabhata
    4. Simuka
    Answer

    A. Hala

    Hala compiled Prakrit verses.

  27. Dhanyakataka, a Satavahana capital, lies near

    1. Ujjain
    2. Taxila
    3. Amaravati
    4. Madurai
    Answer

    C. Amaravati

    Dhanyakataka is near Amaravati.

  28. Nagarjunakonda is linked with the dynasty of the

    1. Guptas
    2. Mauryas
    3. Pallavas
    4. Ikshvakus
    Answer

    D. Ikshvakus

    Vijayapuri at Nagarjunakonda was an Ikshvaku capital.

  29. The rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram were built under the

    1. Satavahanas
    2. Pallavas
    3. Mauryas
    4. Ikshvakus
    Answer

    B. Pallavas

    Pallava kings built them.

  30. The Chinese traveller who visited India in Gupta times was

    1. Megasthenes
    2. Fa-Hien
    3. Marco Polo
    4. Hiuen Tsang
    Answer

    B. Fa-Hien

    Fa-Hien came in Chandragupta II's time.

  31. Match the pair correctly: ruler and fact.

    1. Bindusara - Arthashastra
    2. Hala - Indica
    3. Ashoka - Dhamma
    4. Chandragupta - Kalinga war
    Answer

    C. Ashoka - Dhamma

    Ashoka taught Dhamma after Kalinga.

  32. A teacher wants Class VI children to understand why early humans started farming. The best method is to

    1. ask them to memorise dates only
    2. dictate a long note
    3. discuss cause and effect with pictures and a timeline
    4. avoid questions
    Answer

    C. discuss cause and effect with pictures and a timeline

    Cause-and-effect reasoning helps understanding.

  33. Which source of history helps us to know about trade and kings through images and metals?

    1. Fossils
    2. Maps of rivers
    3. Weather records
    4. Coins
    Answer

    D. Coins

    Coins show rulers, metals and trade links.

  34. Consider the statements on early humans. 1. They practised farming in the Old Stone Age. 2. Early humans first learned to use fire in the Old Stone Age.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Farming began in the Neolithic age.

  35. Consider the statements on the Mahajanapadas. 1. Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada. 2. All Mahajanapadas were monarchies.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Vajji and Malla were republics.

  36. Consider the statements on Ashoka. 1. He continued the Kalinga war to expand his empire. 2. His edicts were carved on rocks and pillars.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    He gave up war after the Kalinga war.

  37. Consider the statements on the Satavahanas. 1. They used Prakrit in the Brahmi script. 2. Their capitals included Pratishthana and Dhanyakataka.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  38. Consider the statements on the Mauryas. 1. Pataliputra was the capital of Chandragupta Maurya. 2. Megasthenes was a Chinese traveller.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Megasthenes was Greek.

  39. Consider the statements on the Harappan civilisation. 1. The Harappans made iron tools. 2. Harappan towns had covered drains.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Iron was not in use then.

  40. Consider the statements on settled life. 1. Surplus food made craftsmanship and trade possible. 2. Settled life began in the Old Stone Age.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Settled life grew from the Neolithic age.

  41. Consider the statements on Assaka. 1. Assaka was in the Ganga plains. 2. Assaka lay on the Godavari.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    It was in the south of the Vindhyas.

  42. Consider the statements on Buddha. 1. He passed away at Kushinagar. 2. His first sermon was at Bodh Gaya.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The first sermon was at Sarnath.

  43. Consider the statements on the Guptas. 1. Fa-Hien visited India in Mauryan times. 2. Kalidasa and Aryabhata belong to Gupta times.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    He came in Gupta times.

  44. Consider the statements on Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati. 1. Both are linked with Buddhist art in Andhra. 2. Amaravati stupa was decorated in the Satavahana period.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  45. Consider the statements on megaliths. 1. They are burials marked by large stones. 2. They are found only in north India.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    They are found mainly in the Deccan and south.

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