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Environment, Sustainable Development and Disaster Management · Chapter 6

Disaster Management: Hazards and the DM Framework

What to remember

  • A hazard is a possible source of harm; a disaster happens when a hazard meets a vulnerable, unprepared community. Risk is what you get when hazard, exposure and vulnerability are high and capacity is low.
  • The Disaster Management Act gives India a three-tier structure: NDMA (national), SDMA (state) and DDMA (district). The Prime Minister, the Chief Minister and the District Collector lead these bodies.
  • Disaster management is a cycle: mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery. Modern policy stresses prevention and preparedness, not only relief.

Basic terms

A hazard is a natural or human-made event or condition that can cause loss of life, property or livelihood. A disaster is a serious disruption of a community's normal life that is beyond its own power to cope. An earthquake in an empty desert is a hazard but not a disaster. The same earthquake under a crowded city is a disaster.

Vulnerability means how easily people, buildings or systems can be damaged. Poor housing, poverty, weak health care, age and disability all raise vulnerability. Exposure means how many people and assets lie in the hazard's path. Capacity means the strength and resources available to cope. Risk depends on hazard, exposure and vulnerability, and it falls when capacity rises.

A simple way to remember: Risk = (Hazard x Vulnerability) / Capacity. This is a teaching idea, not a legal formula.

Natural and man-made hazards

Natural hazards have natural causes. Man-made (anthropogenic) hazards come from human action or failure. Some disasters have mixed causes. For example, floods get worse when wetlands are built over.

GroupExamples
GeologicalEarthquake, tsunami, landslide, volcanic eruption
Hydro-meteorologicalCyclone, flood, drought, cloudburst, heat wave, cold wave, lightning, hailstorm
BiologicalEpidemic, pest attack, locust swarm
Man-made: industrial and chemicalGas leak, factory explosion, chemical spill
Man-made: otherNuclear or radiological accident, fire, building collapse, stampede, oil spill, terror attack

India is highly multi-hazard. A long coastline faces cyclones and tsunamis. The Himalaya is prone to earthquakes and landslides. River plains flood. Large dry regions face drought.

Slow-onset hazards such as drought build over weeks or months. Rapid-onset hazards such as earthquakes and flash floods strike with little or no warning.

Phases of disaster management

Disaster management is not only "relief after the event". It is a continuous cycle.

PhaseTimeMain actions
MitigationBeforeReduce the risk: building codes, embankments, afforestation, land-use zoning, retrofitting
PreparednessBeforePlans, early warning, mock drills, training, stockpiles, evacuation routes
ResponseDuring and just afterSearch and rescue, first aid, shelter, food, water, medical care
RecoveryAfterRehabilitation (restoring services and livelihoods) and reconstruction (rebuilding, "build back better")

Mitigation can be structural (physical works such as cyclone shelters and embankments) or non-structural (laws, awareness, insurance, planning rules). Prevention aims to stop a hazard becoming a disaster. Mitigation aims to reduce its impact.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005

Before this law, India treated disasters mainly as a relief matter handled through the Finance Commission and agriculture ministry. The Act, passed after the 2004 tsunami, created a legal framework for the whole cycle.

Key points:

  • It created the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister, with a limited number of members. It lays down policies, plans and guidelines.
  • It created the National Executive Committee (NEC), which supports NDMA and is led by the Union Home Secretary.
  • Every state has a State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) led by the Chief Minister.
  • Every district has a District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA). The District Collector is the chairperson, and an elected local representative (in rural areas, the head of the Zilla Parishad) is co-chairperson.
  • It provides for the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) for training and research.
  • It provides for the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and for disaster response funds and mitigation funds at national, state and district levels.
  • The Home Ministry is the nodal ministry at the Centre.
  • The Disaster Management (Amendment) Act, 2025 gave statutory status to the National Crisis Management Committee (headed by the Cabinet Secretary) and the High-Level Committee, and provided Urban Disaster Management Authorities for state capitals and cities with municipal corporations.
LevelBodyHead
NationalNDMAPrime Minister
StateSDMAChief Minister
DistrictDDMADistrict Collector

NDRF and SDRF

The NDRF is a specialist force built from battalions drawn from the central armed police forces. Its teams are trained for floods, earthquakes, building collapse, chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear emergencies. They are placed at several locations and fly or move quickly to affected areas.

The SDRF is the state-level force, and the State Disaster Response Fund gives the state money for immediate relief. The Centre supports it with a share of funds, as decided by the Finance Commission. The National Disaster Response Fund supports serious disasters. Both fund and force names use "Response". Do not mix up fund and force.

Armed forces are called in when civil resources are not enough.

National Disaster Management Plan

The Act requires a national plan. India's first National Disaster Management Plan was released in 2016. It follows the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015 to 2030), the global agreement that replaced the Hyogo Framework (2005 to 2015). Sendai has four priorities: understanding disaster risk; strengthening risk governance; investing in risk reduction for resilience; and enhancing preparedness for effective response and "build back better".

The plan covers all phases and assigns tasks to ministries. It also stresses the needs of women, children, older persons and persons with disabilities.

Earlier global steps include the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction in the 1990s and the Yokohama Strategy of 1994.

Community preparedness

Community-based disaster management (CBDM) holds that the first responders are the neighbours. Elements include:

  • Awareness and training: first aid, fire safety, swimming and rescue skills, school safety programmes.
  • Early warning: warnings must be clear, timely and understood in local languages (SMS, sirens, radio, TV).
  • Mock drills and evacuation plans: people should know shelters and safe routes.
  • Village and ward disaster plans, with volunteers such as civil defence and home guards, and trained community volunteers (Aapda Mitra).
  • Special care for the elderly, pregnant women, children and persons with disabilities.
  • Safe construction and local knowledge, including traditional coping methods.

Remote sensing and GIS in disaster management

Remote sensing collects information about the earth from satellites and aircraft without touching the ground. GIS (Geographic Information System) stores, layers and maps this data with location.

UseExample
Hazard mapping and zoningFlood-prone areas, landslide zones, earthquake zones
MonitoringCyclone tracking from weather satellites, flood extent from radar images
Damage assessmentBefore-and-after satellite images of affected areas
PlanningChoosing shelter sites and evacuation routes using GIS layers
Drought watchVegetation health maps

India's INSAT and IRS series of satellites and the National Remote Sensing Centre (Hyderabad) support these tasks. The India Meteorological Department issues cyclone warnings. The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad, issues tsunami and ocean warnings. Radar images (not blocked by cloud) are very useful in floods.

Understanding vulnerability more closely

Vulnerability has several faces. Physical vulnerability is weak buildings, poor roads and bridges, and homes in flood plains or on slopes. Social vulnerability is poverty, low education, gender and age. Women, children, older persons and persons with disabilities need extra care, because they may be less able to leave quickly or find help. Economic vulnerability is dependence on a single crop or job, with no savings or insurance. Environmental vulnerability is loss of forests, mangroves and wetlands that once protected people.

Reducing vulnerability is often cheaper than repairing damage. A well-built house, a drainage channel kept clear, an insured crop and a trained family all cut the toll when a hazard strikes. This is why modern planning says that disasters are not purely "natural": human choices on where and how to build decide the loss.

Funding and financing

Money for disasters comes from several streams. States use their own response fund, with central support. A separate fund supports mitigation projects. Finance Commissions set the share between the Centre and states. For very severe events, the Centre gives extra help from the national fund. Insurance schemes for crops and houses, and local donations, add to the pool. Funds must be used on notified items of relief, such as food, shelter, repair of public assets and compensation to families who lose a member.

Exam traps

  • Hazard vs disaster: a hazard is only the potential. A disaster needs vulnerable people.
  • Vulnerability vs risk: vulnerability is one factor of risk, not the same thing.
  • NDMA vs NDRF: NDMA is the policy authority. NDRF is the response force.
  • Chair of DDMA: the District Collector, with an elected representative as co-chair, not the Superintendent of Police.
  • SDRF vs SDMA: one is a fund and force; the other is an authority.
  • Mitigation vs preparedness: mitigation reduces the risk itself. Preparedness gets people ready to act.
  • Rehabilitation vs reconstruction: rehabilitation restores life and services. Reconstruction rebuilds structures.
  • Hyogo vs Sendai: Hyogo ran to 2015. Sendai runs from 2015 to 2030.

One-liners

  • 1. The Disaster Management Act was passed after the 2004 tsunami.
  • 2. The Prime Minister heads NDMA.
  • 3. The Chief Minister heads the SDMA.
  • 4. The District Collector chairs the DDMA.
  • 5. The National Executive Committee is led by the Union Home Secretary.
  • 6. NIDM trains officials and does research on disasters.
  • 7. NDRF battalions are drawn from the central armed police forces.
  • 8. India's National Disaster Management Plan follows the Sendai Framework.
  • 9. Sendai Framework has four priorities.
  • 10. INCOIS in Hyderabad gives tsunami warnings.
  • 11. IMD issues cyclone warnings.
  • 12. "Build back better" is part of the recovery phase.

Practice questions

  1. What is a hazard?

    1. The ability of a community to recover quickly
    2. A possible source of harm such as a cyclone or chemical leak
    3. A serious disruption that a community cannot cope with
    4. The relief money given after a calamity
    Answer

    B. A possible source of harm such as a cyclone or chemical leak

    A hazard is a potential source of harm; it becomes a disaster only when it hits vulnerable people.

  2. Which term describes how easily people and buildings can be damaged by a hazard?

    1. Resilience
    2. Mitigation
    3. Capacity
    4. Vulnerability
    Answer

    D. Vulnerability

    Vulnerability is susceptibility to damage; poor housing and poverty raise it.

  3. Which of the following is a man-made hazard?

    1. Landslide caused by an earthquake
    2. Industrial gas leak
    3. Cyclone
    4. Earthquake
    Answer

    B. Industrial gas leak

    A gas leak results from human or technical failure; the others are natural hazards.

  4. Which of these is a hydro-meteorological hazard?

    1. Radiological accident
    2. Cloudburst
    3. Volcanic eruption
    4. Tsunami caused by an undersea quake
    Answer

    B. Cloudburst

    Cloudbursts, floods and cyclones are weather and water related; the others are geological or human-made.

  5. Actions such as building codes, embankments and land-use zoning belong to which phase?

    1. Rehabilitation
    2. Search and rescue
    3. Response
    4. Mitigation
    Answer

    D. Mitigation

    These reduce risk before a disaster, which is mitigation.

  6. Mock drills and early warning systems are part of which phase?

    1. Recovery
    2. Relief
    3. Preparedness
    4. Reconstruction
    Answer

    C. Preparedness

    Preparedness gets communities ready to act before a hazard strikes.

  7. Rebuilding damaged homes and roads, with better standards than before, is called

    1. Mitigation
    2. Early warning
    3. Reconstruction
    4. Evacuation
    Answer

    C. Reconstruction

    Reconstruction is rebuilding structures, often to a safer standard.

  8. Who chairs the National Disaster Management Authority?

    1. The President
    2. The Prime Minister
    3. The Chief Justice of India
    4. The Union Home Minister
    Answer

    B. The Prime Minister

    The Disaster Management Act makes the Prime Minister the NDMA chairperson.

  9. Who chairs the State Disaster Management Authority?

    1. The Governor
    2. The Chief Secretary
    3. The state Home Minister
    4. The Chief Minister
    Answer

    D. The Chief Minister

    The Chief Minister heads the SDMA.

  10. Who is the chairperson of the District Disaster Management Authority?

    1. The Zilla Parishad chairperson alone
    2. The District Collector
    3. The Superintendent of Police
    4. The Chief Medical Officer
    Answer

    B. The District Collector

    The Collector chairs the DDMA, and an elected representative is co-chairperson.

  11. The Disaster Management Act was enacted after which major event?

    1. The Kosi flood
    2. The Latur earthquake
    3. The Bhopal gas leak
    4. The Indian Ocean tsunami
    Answer

    D. The Indian Ocean tsunami

    The law followed the tsunami disaster of December 2004.

  12. Which body is responsible for training and research on disasters in India?

    1. National Disaster Response Force
    2. National Remote Sensing Centre
    3. National Institute of Disaster Management
    4. Central Water Commission
    Answer

    C. National Institute of Disaster Management

    NIDM is the training and research institute under the Act.

  13. The National Disaster Response Force is made up of battalions drawn from

    1. The Indian Navy
    2. Central armed police forces
    3. State police only
    4. Home Guards
    Answer

    B. Central armed police forces

    NDRF battalions come from central armed police forces and are specially trained.

  14. The National Executive Committee under the Act is headed by

    1. The Defence Minister
    2. The Cabinet Secretary
    3. The Chairperson of NDMA
    4. The Union Home Secretary
    Answer

    D. The Union Home Secretary

    The Home Secretary leads the NEC, which helps NDMA.

  15. The first National Disaster Management Plan of India follows which global framework?

    1. Ramsar Convention
    2. Kyoto Protocol
    3. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
    4. Montreal Protocol
    Answer

    C. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

    The national plan aligns with the Sendai Framework, 2015 to 2030.

  16. The Sendai Framework replaced which earlier framework?

    1. Hyogo Framework for Action
    2. Rio Declaration
    3. Yokohama Strategy
    4. Paris Agreement
    Answer

    A. Hyogo Framework for Action

    Hyogo (2005 to 2015) was followed by Sendai.

  17. Which Indian agency issues tsunami warnings from Hyderabad?

    1. IMD
    2. NIDM
    3. NDRF
    4. INCOIS
    Answer

    D. INCOIS

    The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services issues ocean and tsunami warnings.

  18. Which is a structural mitigation measure?

    1. Passing a zoning rule
    2. Building a cyclone shelter
    3. Conducting a mock drill
    4. Issuing an SMS alert
    Answer

    B. Building a cyclone shelter

    Cyclone shelters are physical works. The others are non-structural.

  19. Which is a non-structural mitigation measure?

    1. Building a flood wall
    2. Raising an embankment
    3. Land-use zoning rules
    4. Retrofitting a bridge with steel
    Answer

    C. Land-use zoning rules

    Zoning is a rule or planning measure, not a physical structure.

  20. A flood in an empty marsh with no people causes no loss of life. This shows that

    1. Floods are always disasters
    2. Vulnerability does not affect risk
    3. A hazard becomes a disaster only when it meets vulnerable people
    4. Capacity increases the hazard
    Answer

    C. A hazard becomes a disaster only when it meets vulnerable people

    Without exposed, vulnerable people, a hazard does not become a disaster.

  21. Risk rises when

    1. Hazard and vulnerability rise while capacity falls
    2. Hazard falls and exposure falls
    3. Capacity rises and vulnerability falls
    4. Warning time increases
    Answer

    A. Hazard and vulnerability rise while capacity falls

    High hazard and vulnerability with low capacity mean high risk.

  22. Drought is best described as which type of hazard?

    1. Geological
    2. Slow-onset
    3. Rapid-onset
    4. Man-made
    Answer

    B. Slow-onset

    Drought builds over weeks or months, unlike an earthquake.

  23. Which tool uses layers of spatial data to plan evacuation routes and shelter sites?

    1. Geographic Information System
    2. Rain gauge
    3. Seismograph
    4. Anemometer
    Answer

    A. Geographic Information System

    A GIS stores and overlays location data for planning.

  24. Why are radar satellite images useful in floods?

    1. They measure wind direction at ground level
    2. They produce rain
    3. They measure temperature of the sea
    4. They can see through clouds
    Answer

    D. They can see through clouds

    Radar signals pass through cloud, so flood extent can be mapped during storms.

  25. Community-based disaster management is built on the idea that

    1. Only the army can respond
    2. Local people are the first responders
    3. Relief is only a state duty
    4. Training is useless before an event
    Answer

    B. Local people are the first responders

    Neighbours act first, so training and local plans matter.

  26. Which is NOT a part of the response phase?

    1. Search and rescue
    2. Emergency medical care
    3. Providing temporary shelter
    4. Land-use zoning
    Answer

    D. Land-use zoning

    Zoning is a mitigation step carried out before a disaster.

  27. Which of the following correctly pairs the body with its level?

    1. NEC - district
    2. NDMA - state
    3. DDMA - district
    4. SDMA - national
    Answer

    C. DDMA - district

    DDMA works at the district level; NDMA is national; SDMA is state.

  28. Under the Act, the co-chairperson of the DDMA in rural areas is the

    1. Head of the Zilla Parishad
    2. Mandal Revenue Officer
    3. Sarpanch of the largest village
    4. Member of Parliament
    Answer

    A. Head of the Zilla Parishad

    An elected representative, the Zilla Parishad chairperson, is co-chair in rural districts.

  29. Which phase includes the idea of 'build back better'?

    1. Hazard mapping
    2. Preparedness
    3. Recovery
    4. Early warning
    Answer

    C. Recovery

    Recovery and reconstruction aim to rebuild stronger than before.

  30. Which of these is a biological hazard?

    1. Epidemic outbreak
    2. Cyclone
    3. Avalanche
    4. Industrial fire
    Answer

    A. Epidemic outbreak

    Epidemics and pest attacks are biological hazards.

  31. Reducing the loss from future disasters by shifting people away from flood plains is an example of

    1. Post-disaster grief counselling
    2. Risk reduction through planning
    3. Damage assessment
    4. Immediate relief
    Answer

    B. Risk reduction through planning

    Moving people from hazardous zones lowers exposure, which is mitigation.

  32. Statements about the Disaster Management Act: 1. It created a three-tier structure of authorities. 2. The Prime Minister heads the National Authority.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct: national, state and district authorities exist, and the Prime Minister chairs NDMA.

  33. Statements: 1. NDMA is a response force that does rescue work. 2. NDRF is a force trained for specialist response.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    NDMA is a policy authority, not a force. NDRF is the specialist response force.

  34. Statements: 1. Mitigation takes place only after a disaster. 2. Preparedness includes training and mock drills.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Mitigation is mainly done before a disaster. Preparedness includes training and drills.

  35. Statements about Sendai Framework: 1. It runs from 2015 to 2030. 2. It replaced the Hyogo Framework.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Sendai covers 2015 to 2030 and succeeded Hyogo.

  36. Statements: 1. Vulnerability is the same as hazard. 2. Capacity can reduce risk.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Vulnerability and hazard are different factors of risk. Higher capacity lowers risk.

  37. Statements about GIS and remote sensing: 1. They can help map flood-prone areas. 2. They cannot be used for damage assessment.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    They are widely used in damage assessment too, so statement 2 is wrong.

  38. Statements: 1. The District Collector chairs the DDMA. 2. The Chief Minister chairs the DDMA.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Collector chairs the DDMA. The Chief Minister chairs the SDMA.

  39. Statements about hazards: 1. Tsunami is a geological hazard. 2. Lightning is a hydro-meteorological hazard.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    A tsunami is triggered by geological events; lightning comes from weather.

  40. Statements: 1. Rehabilitation restores services and livelihoods after a disaster. 2. Rehabilitation is part of the mitigation phase.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Rehabilitation belongs to recovery, so statement 2 is wrong.

  41. Statements about structural measures: 1. Cyclone shelters are structural. 2. Insurance schemes are structural.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Insurance is a non-structural, financial measure.

  42. Statements about the National Disaster Response Force: 1. Its battalions come from central armed police forces. 2. It is raised by the state police.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    NDRF is a central force; state forces are called SDRF.

  43. Statements: 1. Early warning must be in local languages to be effective. 2. Special care for the elderly and disabled is part of preparedness.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are valid principles of community preparedness.

  44. Statements about slow-onset and rapid-onset hazards: 1. Drought is slow-onset. 2. Earthquake is slow-onset.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Earthquakes strike suddenly, so they are rapid-onset.

  45. The state-level force for disaster response is called

    1. NDRF
    2. NIDM
    3. NDMA
    4. SDRF
    Answer

    D. SDRF

    SDRF is the State Disaster Response Force; NDRF is the central force.

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