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Environment, Sustainable Development and Disaster Management · Chapter 3

Climate Change and Global Environmental Issues

What to remember

  • The greenhouse effect is natural and keeps Earth warm; global warming is the extra warming caused by more greenhouse gases from human activity.
  • The climate treaty chain is UNFCCC (1992), Kyoto Protocol (1997), Paris Agreement (2015). Kyoto set binding targets for developed countries; Paris asks all countries to set their own national targets.
  • India's actions include the National Action Plan on Climate Change (2008) with eight missions, and long-term goals announced at COP26 in 2021, including net zero by 2070.

Greenhouse effect and global warming

Sunlight warms Earth. Earth gives off heat as infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) trap part of this heat, as glass does in a greenhouse. Without this natural effect, Earth would be too cold for life.

Main GHGs and sources:

GasMain human source
Carbon dioxide (CO2)Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, cement
Methane (CH4)Paddy fields, cattle, landfills, coal and gas leaks
Nitrous oxide (N2O)Fertilisers, burning of biomass
CFCs and HFCsRefrigeration, air conditioners, foams
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)Electrical equipment
Water vapourNatural; it amplifies warming

Global warming potential (GWP) compares how much heat a gas traps relative to CO2 over a set period. CO2 is the reference gas. Methane traps much more heat per molecule than CO2 but stays in the air for a shorter time. CFCs and SF6 have very high GWP.

Effects of climate change: rising temperatures, melting glaciers and ice sheets, sea-level rise, more frequent heat waves, droughts, floods and stronger cyclones, shifts in monsoon patterns, coral bleaching, spread of diseases, loss of crop yield and species. Low-lying coasts and deltas are especially at risk, including those of Andhra Pradesh, which has a long coastline and frequent cyclones.

Carbon sinks (forests, oceans, soil) absorb CO2. Carbon sequestration is storing carbon. Carbon footprint is the total GHG emitted by a person, product or organisation.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

The IPCC was set up in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme. It does not do its own research. It reviews scientific work and publishes assessment reports to guide governments.

Ozone depletion

Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs harmful ultraviolet-B radiation. It is measured in Dobson units. Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) such as CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform release chlorine or bromine atoms. A single chlorine atom can destroy very many ozone molecules. The ozone hole forms over Antarctica in the spring season of the southern hemisphere.

Effects of more UV-B: skin cancer, cataracts, weaker immunity, damage to crops and plankton.

AgreementYearPurpose
Vienna Convention1985Framework to protect the ozone layer
Montreal Protocol1987Phase out ODS
Kigali Amendment2016Phase down HFCs (powerful GHGs)

The Montreal Protocol is often called the most successful environmental treaty. Ground-level ozone, in contrast, is a harmful pollutant.

Acid rain and ocean acidification

Acid rain is rain, snow or dust with a pH below about 5.6 (natural rain is slightly acidic). It forms when SO2 and NOx turn into sulphuric and nitric acids in the air. Effects: damage to forests, lakes and fish, leaching of soil nutrients, and corrosion of buildings and monuments (marble is attacked). Control means reducing SO2 and NOx at the source.

Ocean acidification occurs when oceans absorb extra CO2, which forms carbonic acid and lowers ocean pH. It reduces the carbonate that corals, shellfish and some plankton need to build shells and skeletons. It is sometimes called the "other CO2 problem".

Global climate negotiations

  • UNFCCC (1992): adopted at the Rio Earth Summit, in force from 1994. Its yearly meeting is the Conference of the Parties (COP). It follows the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC), meaning all countries share the duty, but developed countries should do more.
  • Kyoto Protocol (1997): adopted in Kyoto, in force from 2005. It set legally binding emission cuts for developed (Annex I) countries. It introduced market tools: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), emissions trading, and joint implementation. Carbon credits come from these tools.
  • Paris Agreement (2015): adopted at COP21, in force from 2016. It aims to keep warming well below 2 degrees C, and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5 degrees C above pre-industrial levels. Each country submits its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), to be updated regularly. It also covers finance, adaptation, and loss and damage.
  • Glasgow (COP26, 2021): countries pledged to speed up climate action and cut down coal use.

Mitigation means reducing emissions. Adaptation means adjusting to the changes. Loss and damage refers to harm that cannot be avoided or adapted to.

India and climate change

  • National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008, has eight national missions: Solar; Enhanced Energy Efficiency; Sustainable Habitat; Water; Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem; Green India; Sustainable Agriculture; Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.
  • Many States have prepared State Action Plans on Climate Change, including Andhra Pradesh.
  • At COP26 (2021) India announced the Panchamrit: 500 GW non-fossil energy capacity by 2030; half of energy needs from renewables by 2030; a cut of one billion tonnes in projected emissions by 2030; reduction of the emission intensity of the economy; and net zero by 2070. India's NDC was updated in 2022.
  • International Solar Alliance (ISA): launched by India and France at COP21 in Paris in 2015, for countries rich in sunlight.
  • LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment): a mission that promotes simple, climate-friendly daily habits.
  • India argues that its per-person emissions are low and that historical responsibility lies with developed countries.

Climate justice

Climate justice means that those who contributed least to the problem, such as poor people, small island states, and indigenous groups, often suffer the most, and deserve fair treatment. It supports:

  • developed countries giving climate finance and clean technology to poorer countries;
  • sharing the burden according to historical emissions and capacity;
  • protection of vulnerable communities, farmers and coastal fishers;
  • a just transition for workers in fossil fuel industries.

Other global issues

Deforestation, desertification (UN Convention to Combat Desertification, 1994), loss of biodiversity, plastic pollution, and El Nino (periodic warming of the Pacific that often weakens the Indian monsoon) are linked to climate change.

Carbon markets, adaptation and Andhra Pradesh

  • Carbon credit: a permit that represents the reduction of one tonne of CO2 equivalent. Carbon offsetting means paying for a reduction elsewhere to balance one's own emissions.
  • Carbon neutral means the emissions released equal the amount removed or offset. Net zero means cutting emissions as far as possible, and balancing the rest by removal.
  • REDD+ is a scheme that rewards countries for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and for conserving and growing forests.
  • Green Climate Fund: set up under the UNFCCC to help developing countries with mitigation and adaptation.
  • Blue carbon: carbon stored by coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrass and salt marshes. Mangroves in the Godavari and Krishna deltas of Andhra Pradesh store carbon and protect against storm surges.

Climate risks for Andhra Pradesh: a long coastline exposed to cyclones and sea-level rise, delta areas prone to flooding and salt-water entry, and dry regions in Rayalaseema that face drought. Responses include cyclone shelters, early warning, climate-resilient farming, mangrove protection, watershed work, and promotion of renewable energy.

Indicators scientists watch: global average temperature, ice-sheet mass, sea level, ocean heat, and the concentration of CO2 in air. Measured in parts per million (ppm), CO2 in the air has risen steadily since the Industrial Revolution.

Other global climate bodies and ideas: the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) studies weather and climate; UNEP (Nairobi) is the UN environment programme. Mitigation co-benefits means actions that cut emissions and also bring other gains, such as cleaner air from using less coal.

Exam traps

  • 1. Stratospheric ozone is good; ground-level ozone is a pollutant.
  • 2. Kyoto bound only developed countries; Paris covers all countries with national pledges.
  • 3. Montreal Protocol is about ozone; Kigali Amendment is about HFCs.
  • 4. IPCC reviews science; it does not carry out new research.
  • 5. Acid rain has a pH below 5.6, not below 7.
  • 6. UNFCCC is a convention; Kyoto and Paris are the instruments under it.
  • 7. Ocean acidification is caused by CO2 dissolving in water, not by acid rain alone.
  • 8. Mitigation reduces emissions; adaptation adjusts to impacts.

One-liners

  • 1. CO2 is the largest contributor to human-caused warming.
  • 2. Methane is released from paddy fields and cattle.
  • 3. The IPCC was formed in 1988.
  • 4. The ozone hole appears over Antarctica.
  • 5. Ozone is measured in Dobson units.
  • 6. The Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987.
  • 7. Kyoto Protocol came into force in 2005.
  • 8. Paris Agreement was adopted at COP21.
  • 9. NAPCC was launched in 2008 with eight missions.
  • 10. India announced net zero by 2070.
  • 11. ISA was launched by India and France.
  • 12. CBDR-RC is a core principle of UNFCCC.

Practice questions

  1. Which gas is the largest human-caused contributor to global warming?

    1. Ozone
    2. Methane
    3. Nitrous oxide
    4. Carbon dioxide
    Answer

    D. Carbon dioxide

    CO2 from fossil fuels and deforestation contributes the most.

  2. Paddy fields and cattle are major sources of

    1. sulphur hexafluoride
    2. methane
    3. CFCs
    4. carbon monoxide
    Answer

    B. methane

    Waterlogged paddy and animal digestion release methane.

  3. Which gas is used as the reference for global warming potential?

    1. Water vapour
    2. Methane
    3. Nitrous oxide
    4. Carbon dioxide
    Answer

    D. Carbon dioxide

    GWP of CO2 is taken as 1.

  4. The IPCC was established in

    1. 1992
    2. 1972
    3. 1988
    4. 2005
    Answer

    C. 1988

    WMO and UNEP set up the IPCC in 1988.

  5. The IPCC mainly

    1. runs carbon markets
    2. reviews scientific work and publishes assessments
    3. enforces emission cuts
    4. funds solar projects
    Answer

    B. reviews scientific work and publishes assessments

    It does not do its own research or enforce rules.

  6. Ozone in the stratosphere protects life by absorbing

    1. visible light
    2. radio waves
    3. infrared radiation
    4. ultraviolet-B radiation
    Answer

    D. ultraviolet-B radiation

    UV-B is harmful to living cells.

  7. Ozone is measured in

    1. decibels
    2. Dobson units
    3. parts per trillion only
    4. becquerels
    Answer

    B. Dobson units

    The Dobson unit measures the ozone column.

  8. The ozone hole forms mainly over

    1. the Sahara
    2. the Himalaya
    3. Antarctica
    4. the Equator
    Answer

    C. Antarctica

    It forms over Antarctica in the southern spring.

  9. Which substances mainly cause ozone depletion?

    1. Water vapour
    2. Carbon dioxide
    3. Methane
    4. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
    Answer

    D. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

    CFCs release chlorine atoms that destroy ozone.

  10. The Montreal Protocol was adopted in

    1. 2015
    2. 1972
    3. 1987
    4. 1997
    Answer

    C. 1987

    It phases out ozone-depleting substances.

  11. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol deals with

    1. CFCs only
    2. carbon dioxide
    3. hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
    4. mercury
    Answer

    C. hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

    HFCs are strong greenhouse gases phased down under Kigali.

  12. The Vienna Convention (1985) was a framework to protect the

    1. wetlands
    2. ozone layer
    3. forests
    4. migratory birds
    Answer

    B. ozone layer

    It led to the Montreal Protocol.

  13. Acid rain has a pH of less than about

    1. 6.8
    2. 5.6
    3. 8.5
    4. 7.0
    Answer

    B. 5.6

    Natural rain is slightly acidic at about 5.6.

  14. Acid rain especially damages monuments made of

    1. granite
    2. glass
    3. marble
    4. teak wood only
    Answer

    C. marble

    Acids react with the calcium carbonate in marble.

  15. Ocean acidification occurs because oceans absorb extra

    1. nitrogen
    2. oxygen
    3. methane
    4. carbon dioxide
    Answer

    D. carbon dioxide

    CO2 forms carbonic acid in seawater.

  16. Ocean acidification mainly harms

    1. corals and shell-forming animals
    2. migratory birds on land
    3. desert plants
    4. polar bears directly
    Answer

    A. corals and shell-forming animals

    Lower carbonate makes it hard to build shells.

  17. The UNFCCC was adopted at the

    1. Paris, 2015
    2. Rio Earth Summit, 1992
    3. Kyoto, 1997
    4. Stockholm Conference, 1972
    Answer

    B. Rio Earth Summit, 1992

    The convention opened for signature at Rio in 1992.

  18. The Kyoto Protocol set binding emission targets for

    1. all countries equally
    2. only China and India
    3. only small island states
    4. developed (Annex I) countries
    Answer

    D. developed (Annex I) countries

    Developing countries had no binding targets.

  19. The Kyoto Protocol came into force in

    1. 1997
    2. 1992
    3. 2005
    4. 2016
    Answer

    C. 2005

    It was adopted in 1997 but came into force in 2005.

  20. The Clean Development Mechanism is a tool under the

    1. Kyoto Protocol
    2. Ramsar Convention
    3. Montreal Protocol
    4. Basel Convention
    Answer

    A. Kyoto Protocol

    CDM lets developed countries earn credits from projects in developing countries.

  21. The Paris Agreement was adopted at

    1. COP26
    2. COP21
    3. COP11
    4. COP3
    Answer

    B. COP21

    COP21 was held in Paris in 2015.

  22. The Paris Agreement aims to hold warming well below

    1. 5 degrees C
    2. 0.5 degrees C
    3. 3 degrees C
    4. 2 degrees C above pre-industrial levels
    Answer

    D. 2 degrees C above pre-industrial levels

    It also seeks to limit warming to 1.5 degrees C.

  23. Under the Paris Agreement, each country submits its

    1. Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)
    2. Annex list
    3. Kyoto quota
    4. Carbon budget auction
    Answer

    A. Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)

    NDCs are national climate pledges.

  24. The principle of CBDR-RC means

    1. only developed countries must act
    2. all countries must cut equally
    3. no country is responsible
    4. all countries share the duty, but developed ones should do more
    Answer

    D. all countries share the duty, but developed ones should do more

    It recognises differing history and capacity.

  25. The National Action Plan on Climate Change was launched in

    1. 2015
    2. 2008
    3. 1992
    4. 2021
    Answer

    B. 2008

    NAPCC has eight national missions.

  26. Which is NOT one of the eight missions of NAPCC?

    1. National Water Mission
    2. National Solar Mission
    3. National Mission on Nuclear Weapons
    4. Green India Mission
    Answer

    C. National Mission on Nuclear Weapons

    Nuclear weapons are unrelated to NAPCC.

  27. At COP26 India announced net-zero emissions by

    1. 2070
    2. 2100
    3. 2030
    4. 2050
    Answer

    A. 2070

    India's net-zero target year is 2070.

  28. The International Solar Alliance was launched by India and

    1. Brazil
    2. France
    3. Japan
    4. Germany
    Answer

    B. France

    It was launched at COP21 in Paris in 2015.

  29. Which term means cutting emissions to limit warming?

    1. Mitigation
    2. Adaptation
    3. Resilience
    4. Offsetting only
    Answer

    A. Mitigation

    Adaptation means adjusting to impacts.

  30. Carbon stored by coastal ecosystems like mangroves and seagrass is called

    1. grey carbon
    2. brown carbon
    3. black carbon
    4. blue carbon
    Answer

    D. blue carbon

    Blue carbon is stored in coastal and marine ecosystems.

  31. Climate justice argues that

    1. rich nations suffer most
    2. all nations suffer equally
    3. those least responsible often suffer most and need fair treatment
    4. courts decide the weather
    Answer

    C. those least responsible often suffer most and need fair treatment

    It stresses fairness, finance and support for vulnerable groups.

  32. El Nino is linked to a weaker Indian monsoon because it

    1. stops sunlight
    2. warms the Pacific and alters air circulation
    3. raises ozone
    4. cools the Arabian Sea
    Answer

    B. warms the Pacific and alters air circulation

    Pacific warming often reduces monsoon rain.

  33. Consider the statements: 1. Greenhouse gases occur naturally and keep Earth warm. 2. Global warming is caused only by natural processes. Which of the statements is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Human emissions have strengthened the greenhouse effect.

  34. Consider the statements: 1. Stratospheric ozone is beneficial for life. 2. Ground-level ozone is beneficial for lung health. Which of the statements is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Ground-level ozone is a harmful pollutant.

  35. Consider the statements: 1. The Montreal Protocol is aimed at ozone-depleting substances. 2. The Kyoto Protocol is aimed at ozone-depleting substances. Which of the statements is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Kyoto targets greenhouse gases.

  36. Consider the statements: 1. The Paris Agreement came into force in 2016. 2. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted before the Paris Agreement. Which of the statements is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Kyoto was adopted in 1997 and Paris in 2015; Paris was in force from 2016.

  37. Consider the statements: 1. Methane has a longer lifetime in air than carbon dioxide. 2. Carbon dioxide is the reference gas for GWP. Which of the statements is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Methane is shorter-lived than CO2, though a stronger heat-trapper.

  38. Consider the statements: 1. Acid rain forms from SO2 and NOx. 2. Acid rain can corrode buildings. Which of the statements is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both statements are correct.

  39. Consider the statements: 1. The UNFCCC holds an annual Conference of the Parties. 2. The UNFCCC was adopted in 1997. Which of the statements is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    UNFCCC was adopted in 1992; Kyoto in 1997.

  40. Consider the statements: 1. India's Panchamrit includes a net-zero target. 2. The International Solar Alliance was launched at COP26. Which of the statements is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    ISA was launched in 2015 at COP21.

  41. Match the agreement with its subject. 1. Montreal 2. Kyoto 3. Paris 4. Kigali A. Binding cuts for developed countries B. National pledges C. Ozone-depleting substances D. HFCs

    1. 1-A, 2-C, 3-B, 4-D
    2. 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C
    3. 1-C, 2-B, 3-A, 4-D
    4. 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-D
    Answer

    D. 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-D

    Each agreement is matched with its main subject.

  42. Match the gas with its source. 1. Methane 2. Nitrous oxide 3. CFCs 4. CO2 A. Refrigerants B. Fossil fuels C. Fertilisers D. Paddy fields

    1. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
    2. 1-A, 2-C, 3-D, 4-B
    3. 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B
    4. 1-D, 2-C, 3-A, 4-B
    Answer

    D. 1-D, 2-C, 3-A, 4-B

    Each is matched to its main source.

  43. Which Andhra Pradesh landscape is most exposed to cyclones and sea-level rise?

    1. Eastern Ghats peaks
    2. Coastal and delta areas
    3. Interior Nallamala hills
    4. Seshachalam crest
    Answer

    B. Coastal and delta areas

    Long coastline and low-lying deltas face storm surge and flooding.

  44. Which region of Andhra Pradesh is most prone to drought?

    1. Godavari delta
    2. Krishna delta
    3. Coastal Srikakulam belt
    4. Rayalaseema
    Answer

    D. Rayalaseema

    Rayalaseema is a semi-arid rain-shadow region.

  45. The Green Climate Fund helps developing countries with

    1. hunting control
    2. ozone monitoring
    3. mitigation and adaptation finance
    4. border trade
    Answer

    C. mitigation and adaptation finance

    It was set up under the UNFCCC.

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