World Geography — Continents & Countries

Why This Chapter Matters

History pulls a steady 4 to 6 marks in the General Awareness section of RRB ALP and Technician papers, and unlike physics or chemistry, these marks come from pure recall, not calculation. That makes this chapter some of the cheapest marks in the whole exam, provided you memorise the right names, dates, and dynasty order. Miss this chapter and you are leaving free marks on the table while a rival candidate, who spent one evening on it, walks away with them.

The single biggest mistake aspirants make here is jumbling the order of empires. Students know isolated facts, "Ashoka fought Kalinga," "Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri," but cannot place them on a timeline relative to each other, so a single sequencing question wrecks their confidence. This chapter is built around one continuous timeline, empire by empire, so you always know what came before and after. We will also fix a second recurring error: confusing similar-sounding rulers and cities across dynasties (Chandragupta Maurya versus Chandragupta II, or Delhi Sultanate rulers versus Mughal rulers). Read this chapter in order, once, and the sequence will stay with you.

1. The Indus Valley Civilization (approximately 3300–1300 BCE)

This is India's oldest known urban civilization, and exam papers treat it almost like a checklist topic: name a site, and you should instantly know its distinctive feature.

The civilization is also called the Harappan Civilization, named after Harappa, the first site discovered, in present-day Pakistan's Punjab region, excavated in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni. A year later, in 1922, Rakhaldas Banerjee discovered Mohenjo-daro ("mound of the dead") on the banks of the Indus river in Sindh, now Pakistan.

Memory hook: Think of the Indus Valley cities as a well-run railway junction. Every city had planned streets in a grid pattern, just like organised platforms, a covered drainage system running beneath the streets like underground cabling, and standardised weights and measures, just like standard gauge track ensures every train fits the same system. This planning-first mindset is the single most distinctive feature examiners test.

Key Sites and Their Unique Identifiers

Site	Location (present-day)	Distinctive feature
Harappa	Punjab, Pakistan	First site discovered (1921); granaries, workers' quarters
Mohenjo-daro	Sindh, Pakistan	The Great Bath, a large public water tank; also called "Mound of the Dead"
Lothal	Gujarat, India	An artificial dockyard, proving maritime trade
Dholavira	Gujarat, India	A unique three-part city division and water conservation system
Kalibangan	Rajasthan, India	Evidence of a ploughed agricultural field and fire altars
Banawali	Haryana, India	Fine quality barley remains, a mix of Harappan and pre-Harappan traits
Rakhigarhi	Haryana, India	One of the largest Harappan sites by area, still under excavation

Exam trap: Students confuse Mohenjo-daro's Great Bath with a religious temple. There is no confirmed evidence of temples in Harappan cities at all. The Great Bath is believed to be a public or ritual bathing structure, not a temple, and this exact distinction, "no temples found," appears repeatedly as a standalone true/false-style question.

The Harappans were skilled in town planning, bronze and copper metallurgy, cotton weaving (they were probably the earliest cultivators of cotton), bead-making, and seal-carving. Their seals, mostly made of steatite, often show animals like the humped bull and carry a script that remains undeciphered to this day. This undeciphered script is itself a frequently asked fact.

The civilization declined gradually, likely due to a combination of factors including climate change, drying up of the Saraswati river system, floods, and shifts in trade patterns. No single cause is confirmed, and exam answers should avoid picking one dramatic reason like "Aryan invasion," a theory largely abandoned in mainstream historical understanding today in favour of gradual decline and internal migration.

2. The Vedic Period (approximately 1500–600 BCE)

After the decline of Harappan cities, focus shifts to the Indo-Aryans, a group whose migration into the Indian subcontinent brought a new language family, Sanskrit, and a body of sacred texts called the Vedas. This period is split into two phases for exam purposes.

Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic, c. 1500–1000 BCE)

Centred around the Sapta Sindhu region (the land of seven rivers, roughly Punjab and its surroundings). Society was largely pastoral, cattle-focused, and organised into tribal units called janas, led by a chief called a rajan. The Rigveda, the oldest of the four Vedas, is the primary source for this period, a collection of hymns to nature deities like Agni (fire), Indra (rain and war), and Varuna (cosmic order).

Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 BCE)

Society moved eastward into the Gangetic plains, agriculture became central, and social organisation hardened into the varna system (the four-fold division: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras). This period produced the other three Vedas, the Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda, along with the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads as later philosophical texts.

Memory hook — the four Vedas in order: "Ring the Yaj Sama Athar bell." Rigveda first (oldest, hymns), Yajurveda (rituals and sacrificial formulas), Samaveda (musical chants, closely tied to Rigveda hymns but set to melody), Atharvaveda (spells, charms, everyday life, latest of the four). Say the first syllables in order: Ri-Ya-Sa-A.

Exam trap: Students assume the Samaveda is the "musical" cousin of the Yajurveda. It is actually closely linked to the Rigveda, since most Samaveda verses are Rigvedic hymns set to musical notation for chanting during rituals.

By the end of the Vedic period, 16 Mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) had emerged across northern India, including Magadha, Kosala, Avanti, and Vatsa. Magadha, with its capital eventually at Pataliputra, rose to dominate the others and became the launching pad for the first great pan-Indian empires.

3. The Mauryan Empire (c. 321–185 BCE)

This is one of the most heavily tested empires in the entire ancient history syllabus, so treat every name below as guaranteed exam material.

Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire around 321 BCE, overthrowing the unpopular Nanda dynasty of Magadha with the guidance of his brilliant strategist and advisor, Chanakya (also called Kautilya or Vishnugupta), the author of the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy. Chandragupta later defeated Seleucus Nicator, a general of Alexander the Great who tried to reclaim territory in the northwest, and secured a peace treaty that brought him extra territory, plus a Greek ambassador, Megasthenes, to his court. Megasthenes wrote Indica, an account of Mauryan India as seen by a foreign visitor, an important source for historians.

Chandragupta's son Bindusara expanded the empire further south. But it is Bindusara's son, Ashoka, who dominates every exam paper.

Ashoka the Great (c. 268–232 BCE)

Ashoka fought the brutal Kalinga War around 261 BCE against the region roughly corresponding to modern Odisha. The scale of bloodshed in that war is described as having deeply affected him, and he subsequently adopted Buddhism and the policy of Dhamma, a code of ethical conduct promoting non-violence, tolerance, and social welfare, which he spread through edicts carved onto rocks and pillars across his empire.

Ashokan edicts are inscribed in Brahmi script (and Kharosthi in the northwest, plus Greek and Aramaic in some border areas), and they remain one of the richest primary sources for reconstructing Mauryan administration and Ashoka's personal philosophy. The Lion Capital of Sarnath, topped by four lions standing back to back, was adopted as independent India's national emblem, and the wheel (Ashoka Chakra) from the same pillar sits at the centre of the Indian national flag.

Memory hook: "Kalinga cracked Ashoka's conscience." The war's horror is the hinge on which Ashoka's entire later reign turns, from conqueror to a ruler remembered for peace and welfare edicts. Anchor every Ashoka fact to this one turning event.

Exam trap: Do not confuse Chandragupta Maurya (founder of the Mauryan Empire, guided by Chanakya, 4th century BCE) with Chandragupta I (founder of the Gupta Empire, 4th century CE) or Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya" (a later, most powerful Gupta ruler). Three different rulers, three different centuries, three different empires, one repeatedly confused name. Always check the century and the empire name in the question stem before answering.

The Mauryan Empire declined after Ashoka's death around 232 BCE, weakened by succession issues and pressure at the frontiers, finally ending when the last Mauryan ruler was overthrown by his own general, Pushyamitra Shunga, who founded the Shunga dynasty around 185 BCE.

4. The Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE)

Often called the Golden Age of ancient India in popular exam language because of its achievements in science, mathematics, astronomy, art, and literature, though you should know specifics, not just the label.

Chandragupta I founded the empire around 320 CE, strengthened significantly through his marriage alliance with the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. His son Samudragupta, often called the "Napoleon of India" by some historians for his extensive military conquests, expanded the empire dramatically; his achievements are recorded in the Allahabad Prashasti (a eulogy inscription) composed by his court poet Harisena.

Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, is considered the empire's peak ruler, and his court is traditionally associated with the legendary Navaratnas (nine gems), a group of scholars including the celebrated Sanskrit poet and dramatist Kalidasa (author of Abhijnanasakuntalam and Meghaduta) and the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata, whose actual dating places him slightly later, but who is closely tied to Gupta-era scientific achievement regardless.

Gupta-Era Achievements Worth Memorising

• Aryabhata proposed that the earth rotates on its axis and calculated the value of pi to a close approximation; he authored the Aryabhatiya.
• The concept of zero as a numeral and the decimal place-value system were refined and used extensively during this period, later transmitted westward through Arab scholars, which is why Europe eventually called these "Arabic numerals" despite Indian origin.
• Varahamihira contributed to astronomy and astrology, authoring the Panchasiddhantika and Brihatsamhita.
• The Chinese traveller Fa-Hien (Faxian) visited India during Chandragupta II's reign and left a valuable travel account describing Gupta administration and society as broadly prosperous and well-governed.
• Nalanda University, one of the earliest great centres of learning in the world, developed substantially during and after this period, drawing students from across Asia.

Exam trap: Do not confuse Fa-Hien with Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang), another famous Chinese traveller, who visited India roughly two centuries later during the reign of Harshavardhana, not during the Gupta period. Fa-Hien equals Guptas, Hiuen Tsang equals Harsha; keep the traveller and the century locked together.

The Gupta Empire declined under pressure from Huna (Hun) invasions and internal fragmentation through the mid-6th century CE, giving way eventually to regional kingdoms, with Harshavardhana of Kannauj briefly reuniting much of north India in the 7th century before his death led to further fragmentation.

5. The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE)

This is where the medieval period proper begins for exam purposes, marked by the establishment of sustained Turkic-Afghan Muslim rule over large parts of north India. Five dynasties ruled in sequence over roughly three centuries.

Memory hook — the five dynasties in order: "Slaves Won Turkish Lands, Lodily." Slayed dynasty (Slave/Mamluk), Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi. Or simply remember the acronym SKTSL, and practice saying it as "sktsl" a few times until the order sticks without effort.

The Five Dynasties at a Glance

Dynasty	Approximate period	Notable ruler(s)	Key fact
Slave (Mamluk)	1206–1290	Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia Sultan	Aibak began the Qutub Minar; Razia Sultan was the only woman to rule the Sultanate
Khilji	1290–1320	Jalal-ud-din Khilji, Alauddin Khilji	Alauddin introduced market price control reforms; repelled Mongol invasions
Tughlaq	1320–1414	Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, Muhammad bin Tughlaq	Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad), then reversed it, a famously disastrous decision
Sayyid	1414–1451	Khizr Khan and successors	A weak, short-lived dynasty with limited real territorial control
Lodi	1451–1526	Bahlul Lodi, Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi	Only Afghan (not Turkic) dynasty of the Sultanate; Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur at Panipat, ending the Sultanate

Exam trap: Qutb-ud-din Aibak began the construction of the Qutub Minar, but it was completed later by his successor Iltutmish. A frequent wrong-option trap credits the entire structure to Aibak alone.

Razia Sultan (ruled 1236–1240), daughter of Iltutmish, was the only woman ever to rule as sovereign of the Delhi Sultanate, a fact tested almost every exam cycle in some form.

Alauddin Khilji is remembered for his market control policies, fixing prices of essential goods to maintain a large standing army economically, and for successfully repelling repeated Mongol invasions into India, a genuinely significant military achievement often underweighted in casual study.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq carries two famous, exam-favourite decisions: shifting the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (in modern Maharashtra) and back again, causing massive hardship, and introducing token currency (copper coins meant to have the same value as silver coins), which failed because it was easily counterfeited and lacked public trust. Both decisions are cited as classic examples of a well-intentioned but poorly executed administrative reform.

The Sultanate period ended when Ibrahim Lodi, the last Lodi ruler, was defeated and killed by Babur at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, opening the door to Mughal rule.

6. The Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE, effective power until roughly mid-1700s)

Babur, a Central Asian ruler descended from both Timur and Genghis Khan, founded the Mughal Empire after defeating Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526), using superior artillery and cavalry tactics. He also defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar at the Battle of Khanwa (1527), consolidating his hold on north India.

Memory hook — early Mughal rulers in order: think of them as a relay race baton pass: "Babur hands to Humayun, who briefly drops it to Sher Shah Suri, then picks it back up before handing to Akbar, who hands to Jahangir, then Shah Jahan, then Aurangzeb." B-H-A-J-S-A if you strip it to first letters (Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb), remembering that Humayun's reign was interrupted.

The Interruption: Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545)

Humayun, Babur's son, was defeated and driven out of India by the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri, who briefly established the Suri dynasty. Though his rule was short, Sher Shah Suri is remembered for genuinely important administrative reforms: he built the Grand Trunk Road (connecting Bengal to the Indus region, still a functioning route concept today), introduced a standardised currency called the Rupiya (the ancestor of the modern rupee), and established an efficient land revenue and postal (dak chowki) system. Humayun later reclaimed the throne in 1555 after Sher Shah's death and the Suri dynasty's subsequent decline, but died within a year from a fall down the stairs of his library.

Akbar (1556–1605)

Akbar, Humayun's son, ascended the throne as a teenager and became the empire's most consequential ruler. He won the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu, consolidating Mughal control. His reign is remembered for administrative innovation (the mansabdari system for organising nobility and military ranks), religious tolerance (abolishing the jizya tax on non-Muslims and founding Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic spiritual order that never became a mass religion), and cultural patronage, including his Navaratnas (nine gems) at court, among them Birbal, Tansen, and Todar Mal (architect of Akbar's revenue reforms).

Exam trap: Akbar's Navaratnas and Chandragupta II's legendary Navaratnas are two entirely separate groups from two entirely different empires roughly a thousand years apart. Same term, same number, completely different people; always check which emperor the question is referencing.

Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb

Jahangir (1605–1627), Akbar's son, is remembered for his interest in art, justice (the symbolic "chain of justice" outside his palace), and his powerful wife Nur Jahan, who wielded significant political influence.

Shah Jahan (1628–1658) presided over the peak of Mughal architecture, commissioning the Taj Mahal at Agra in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, along with the Red Fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi, and the ornate Peacock Throne.

Aurangzeb (1658–1707) expanded the empire to its largest territorial extent but is remembered for reversing many of Akbar's tolerant policies, reimposing the jizya tax, and facing sustained resistance, notably from the rising Maratha power under Shivaji in the Deccan. His long, costly Deccan campaigns are considered a major factor in weakening the empire's finances and cohesion after his death.

Exam trap: Aurangzeb's death in 1707 is commonly cited as the point after which the Mughal Empire went into rapid political decline, even though the dynasty nominally continued on paper until 1857. Do not assume "Mughal Empire ended in 1707"; the correct nuance is that effective central power collapsed gradually after 1707, while the last titular Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was only formally deposed by the British after the 1857 revolt.

Quick Revision — One-Line Facts

• Harappa was discovered first (1921) by Daya Ram Sahni; Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by Rakhaldas Banerjee.
• Mohenjo-daro's Great Bath is a public bathing structure; no confirmed temples exist at Harappan sites.
• Lothal in Gujarat had an artificial dockyard, proving Harappan maritime trade.
• The Harappan script remains undeciphered to date.
• The Rigveda is the oldest of the four Vedas; the Atharvaveda is the latest.
• The Samaveda is musically linked closely to the Rigveda.
• The varna system hardened during the Later Vedic period as society shifted to the Gangetic plains.
• Magadha, with capital Pataliputra, rose as the dominant Mahajanapada.
• Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire around 321 BCE with Chanakya's guidance.
• Chanakya (Kautilya) authored the Arthashastra.
• Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, wrote Indica about Mauryan India.
• The Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE) transformed Ashoka's policy toward Dhamma and Buddhism.
• The Lion Capital of Sarnath is India's national emblem; its wheel forms the Ashoka Chakra on the national flag.
• Ashokan edicts are mainly in Brahmi script.
• Chandragupta I founded the Gupta Empire around 320 CE.
• Samudragupta's conquests are recorded in the Allahabad Prashasti by Harisena.
• Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) presided over the Gupta Golden Age's peak.
• Aryabhata calculated an approximate value of pi and proposed earth's axial rotation.
• Fa-Hien visited Gupta India; Hiuen Tsang visited Harsha's India roughly two centuries later.
• Gupta-era India developed the decimal place-value system and the concept of zero.
• The Delhi Sultanate had five dynasties in order: Slave, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi (1206–1526).
• Qutb-ud-din Aibak began the Qutub Minar; Iltutmish completed it.
• Razia Sultan was the only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Alauddin Khilji introduced market price controls and repelled Mongol invasions.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq's capital shift to Daulatabad and token currency scheme both failed.
• Babur founded the Mughal Empire after the First Battle of Panipat (1526).
• Sher Shah Suri briefly interrupted Mughal rule and introduced the Rupiya currency and Grand Trunk Road.
• Akbar abolished the jizya tax and founded Din-i-Ilahi.
• Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid.
• Aurangzeb faced sustained Maratha resistance under Shivaji and reimposed the jizya tax.
• Effective Mughal power declined sharply after Aurangzeb's death in 1707, though the dynasty continued nominally until 1857.

Memory Tables

Table A — Ancient India Timeline at a Glance

Period/Empire	Approximate dates	Key figure to remember
Indus Valley Civilization	c. 3300–1300 BCE	Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (no single ruler known)
Early Vedic Period	c. 1500–1000 BCE	Composition of the Rigveda
Later Vedic Period	c. 1000–600 BCE	Rise of Mahajanapadas, varna system
Mauryan Empire	c. 321–185 BCE	Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka
Gupta Empire	c. 320–550 CE	Chandragupta I, Chandragupta II, Aryabhata

Table B — Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Rulers, Signature Facts

Ruler	Dynasty/Empire	Best-remembered for
Qutb-ud-din Aibak	Slave	Began Qutub Minar
Razia Sultan	Slave	Only woman ruler of the Sultanate
Alauddin Khilji	Khilji	Market price control, repelled Mongols
Muhammad bin Tughlaq	Tughlaq	Failed capital shift, failed token currency
Ibrahim Lodi	Lodi	Defeated by Babur, First Battle of Panipat 1526
Babur	Mughal	Founded empire, First Battle of Panipat
Sher Shah Suri	Suri (interruption)	Grand Trunk Road, Rupiya currency
Akbar	Mughal	Mansabdari system, abolished jizya
Shah Jahan	Mughal	Built the Taj Mahal
Aurangzeb	Mughal	Largest territorial extent, faced Maratha resistance

Practice MCQs

Q1. Which site is famous for the discovery of an artificial dockyard from the Harappan period? (a) Mohenjo-daro (b) Harappa (c) Lothal (d) Kalibangan

Q2. Who discovered the Harappan site of Mohenjo-daro? (a) Daya Ram Sahni (b) Rakhaldas Banerjee (c) John Marshall (d) Alexander Cunningham

Q3. Which is the oldest of the four Vedas? (a) Samaveda (b) Yajurveda (c) Atharvaveda (d) Rigveda

Q4. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire with the guidance of: (a) Megasthenes (b) Chanakya (c) Aryabhata (d) Kalidasa

Q5. The Kalinga War led Emperor Ashoka to adopt which policy? (a) Digvijaya (military conquest) (b) Dhamma (c) Jizya abolition (d) Mansabdari

Q6. The Allahabad Prashasti, describing Samudragupta's conquests, was composed by: (a) Kalidasa (b) Harisena (c) Varahamihira (d) Aryabhata

Q7. Which Chinese traveller visited India during Chandragupta II's reign? (a) Hiuen Tsang (b) Fa-Hien (c) It-sing (d) Marco Polo

Q8. Arrange the Delhi Sultanate dynasties in correct chronological order. (a) Khilji, Slave, Tughlaq, Lodi, Sayyid (b) Slave, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi (c) Tughlaq, Slave, Khilji, Lodi, Sayyid (d) Slave, Tughlaq, Khilji, Sayyid, Lodi

Q9. Who was the only woman to rule as sovereign of the Delhi Sultanate? (a) Nur Jahan (b) Razia Sultan (c) Chand Bibi (d) Mumtaz Mahal

Q10. Muhammad bin Tughlaq is most associated with which failed administrative decision? (a) Abolishing the mansabdari system (b) Shifting the capital to Daulatabad (c) Introducing the jizya tax (d) Building the Qutub Minar

Q11. The First Battle of Panipat (1526), which established Mughal rule, was fought between Babur and: (a) Rana Sanga (b) Ibrahim Lodi (c) Sher Shah Suri (d) Hemu

Q12. Sher Shah Suri is best remembered for building which route? (a) Rajpath (b) Grand Trunk Road (c) Silk Route (d) Golden Quadrilateral

Q13. Which Mughal emperor abolished the jizya tax and founded Din-i-Ilahi? (a) Babur (b) Jahangir (c) Akbar (d) Aurangzeb

Q14. The Taj Mahal was built by which Mughal emperor? (a) Jahangir (b) Shah Jahan (c) Aurangzeb (d) Akbar

Q15. Effective Mughal central power went into rapid decline after the death of which emperor in 1707? (a) Shah Jahan (b) Jahangir (c) Aurangzeb (d) Bahadur Shah Zafar

Answer Key

Q	Answer	Reason
1	(c)	Lothal's artificial dockyard is the key evidence for organised Harappan maritime and trade activity.
2	(b)	Rakhaldas Banerjee discovered Mohenjo-daro in 1922, a year after Sahni found Harappa.
3	(d)	The Rigveda, a collection of hymns, is the oldest Vedic text and the primary source for the Early Vedic Period.
4	(b)	Chanakya (Kautilya), author of the Arthashastra, guided Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power.
5	(b)	The bloodshed of Kalinga pushed Ashoka toward Dhamma, his ethical code of non-violence and welfare.
6	(b)	Harisena, Samudragupta's court poet, composed the Allahabad Prashasti eulogy inscription.
7	(b)	Fa-Hien visited during the Gupta period; Hiuen Tsang came roughly two centuries later under Harsha.
8	(b)	The correct order is Slave, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi, spanning 1206 to 1526.
9	(b)	Razia Sultan, daughter of Iltutmish, remains the only woman to rule the Delhi Sultanate directly.
10	(b)	His capital shift from Delhi to Daulatabad and back is the textbook example of a disastrous administrative decision.
11	(b)	Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last Lodi ruler, ending the Delhi Sultanate and founding Mughal rule.
12	(b)	The Grand Trunk Road, connecting Bengal to the Indus region, is Sher Shah Suri's most cited legacy project.
13	(c)	Akbar abolished the jizya tax and founded Din-i-Ilahi as part of his policy of religious tolerance.
14	(b)	Shah Jahan commissioned the Taj Mahal at Agra in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
15	(c)	Aurangzeb's death in 1707 is the conventional marker for the start of steep Mughal political decline.