←
Village Agriculture, Horticulture and Sericulture Assistant · Chapter 12

Plantation crops, nursery and protected cultivation

What to remember

  • Plantation crops are perennial, long-duration crops grown on large areas for processing and trade: coconut, oil palm, cashew, coffee, tea, rubber, arecanut, cocoa. Most have a gestation period (years before first yield) and an economic life of many years.
  • A nursery produces healthy planting material under care. Good nurseries use certified rootstock, proper media, shade, mist and hardening.
  • Protected cultivation (polyhouse, shade net, low tunnel) controls light, temperature, humidity and pests to raise yield and quality of high-value crops.

Plantation crops

CropBotanical nameKey points
CoconutCocos nuciferaTall, dwarf and hybrid types; palm of the coast; spacing about 7.5 m × 7.5 m
Oil palmElaeis guineensisGives palm oil from fleshy fruit and palm kernel oil from seed; harvest of fresh fruit bunches (FFB)
CashewAnacardium occidentaleNut and cashew apple; grown on poor, gravelly and coastal soils
CoffeeCoffea arabica, C. canephora (robusta)Grown under shade at elevation; Araku valley in the Eastern Ghats is known for coffee
TeaCamellia sinensisHill crop, acidic soil; plucking of two leaves and a bud
RubberHevea brasiliensisLatex by tapping the bark; Rubber Board in Kerala
ArecanutAreca catechuPalm grown in humid areas under irrigation
CocoaTheobroma cacaoShade-loving tree, often an intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens

Boards: Coconut Development Board, Coffee Board, Tea Board, Rubber Board, Spices Board and the Directorate of Cashewnut and Cocoa Development support these crops.

Coconut and oil palm in detail

Coconut types:

  • Tall (West Coast Tall): long life, 60-80 years, starts bearing late (about 6-8 years), cross pollinated.
  • Dwarf (Chowghat Orange Dwarf, Malayan dwarf): early bearing (3-4 years), short life, self pollinated, good for tender coconut.
  • Hybrids (Tall × Dwarf): early and high yield.

Seed nut selection: take from a high-yielding mother palm, 12 months old nuts, and sow in nursery bed for about 6-9 months. Planting pit is about 1 m cube. Square planting at 7.5 m × 7.5 m gives about 177 palms per hectare (10,000 ÷ 56.25); triangular planting at 7.5 m gives about 205. Pests: rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros), red palm weevil, eriophyid mite (nut damage), and bud rot and root wilt diseases. Basin irrigation or drip is common; common salt was traditionally used as a coconut manure supplement for chloride.

Oil palm: a monoecious palm that produces male and female inflorescences. Seedlings are raised in a pre-nursery (polybags about 3 months) and a main nursery (larger bags up to 10-12 months). Planting is in triangular pattern at about 9 m spacing, giving about 143 palms per hectare. It needs plenty of water, so drip irrigation and a hot, humid climate suit it. Bunches are harvested by a sickle on a long pole or by chisel when loose fruits fall. Oil is extracted in a mill soon after harvest, since delay raises free fatty acid. Palm oil is the highest yielding oil crop per hectare. The central mission on edible oils and oil palm supports expansion.

Cashew: soft wood grafting and air layering give true-to-type plants; spacing about 7 m × 7 m or 8 m × 8 m; the tea mosquito bug and stem and root borer are major pests. Coffee: Arabica gives finer quality; robusta is hardier; berry borer is a pest and leaf rust a disease. Rubber: tapping is done early in the morning, as latex flow is best.

Nursery management

A nursery is a place where seeds and cuttings are raised before field planting. Parts of a good nursery: mother block, propagation area, mist chamber, shade net house, hardening area and water source.

Key points:

  • Media: mixture of red soil, sand and farmyard manure, or cocopeat for pro-trays. Media should be well-drained and free from pathogens.
  • Containers: polybags, root trainers, pro-trays.
  • Rootstock: uniform and healthy seedling rootstock; scions from healthy mother plants.
  • Mist chamber: keeps high humidity (above 80%) so that cuttings do not dry before rooting.
  • Shade net: reduces light and heat for young plants.
  • Hardening: gradual exposure to field light before sale.
  • Sanitation: disease free mother plants, clean tools and treated media.
  • Label every lot by variety, with record of source and date.

Tissue culture gives disease-free uniform plants in banana, orchids and some spices. It needs sterile lab, nutrient agar medium and hormones (auxin and cytokinin).

Protected cultivation

StructureFeaturesUse
Greenhouse or polyhouseFrame covered with UV-stabilised plastic film (commonly about 200 micron); can be naturally ventilated or fan-and-pad cooledCapsicum, cucumber, tomato, rose, gerbera, carnation
Shade net houseNet of 35-75% shadeNursery, vegetables, anthurium, ornamental foliage
Low tunnelSmall plastic arch over bedEarly vegetables, protection from cold
Insect-proof net houseFine mesh netVirus-free seedlings, vegetable nursery
HydroponicsPlants grown in nutrient solution without soilLeafy vegetables, tomato

Advantages: higher yield per area, off-season production, quality, less pesticide, water saving. Limits: high initial cost and need for skill. Drip with fertigation, plastic mulch, trellising and integrated pest management are used with protected cultivation. Greenhouses give a warmer, humid environment, so ventilation, shade screens and foggers are used in the hot season. Government support is given under MIDH and State horticulture departments through subsidy.

Worked examples

  • Palms per hectare at 7.5 m × 7.5 m: 10,000 ÷ 56.25 = about 177.
  • Oil palm at triangular 9 m side: area per palm = 0.866 × 9 × 9 = 70.2 m², so 10,000 ÷ 70.2 = about 142-143 palms.
  • Area of a polyhouse 40 m × 25 m = 1,000 m². If a cucumber crop gives 5 kg per m², total = 5,000 kg.
  • Shade net 50% means it cuts 50% of the sunlight.
  • A nursery needs 1,200 seedlings; with 80% survival, plant 1,200 ÷ 0.8 = 1,500 seeds.

Economy, boards and support

Plantation crops earn foreign exchange (coffee, tea, rubber, cashew, spices) and give year-round work to rural families. Intercropping adds income during the long gestation period: banana, pineapple, vegetables, cocoa or pepper are grown between young coconut or oil palm. Smallholders in oil palm commonly sell fresh bunches to a mill under a tie-up, so the harvest must reach the mill within a day or two. The price paid for bunches depends on oil content, so well-ripened bunches are cut.

Oil palm management: young palms are protected with weeding of a circle around each palm, and a leguminous cover crop is often sown between rows to fix nitrogen and prevent erosion. Fertiliser doses increase with age. Assisted pollination (weevils introduced for pollination or hand pollination) improves fruit set.

Coconut management: loss of water is reduced by mulching with coconut husk; irrigation in the dry months raises nut set; and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potash are applied in two splits a year. Husk, shell and leaf are used for coir, charcoal and thatch, which shows the value of the whole palm.

Quality and safety in nurseries: buy seed and grafts only from reliable sources; reject plants with weak stem, root coiling or disease signs; keep a record of sale. Plants for protected cultivation are raised under insect-proof net to prevent virus carry-over.

Exam traps

  • Tall coconut is cross pollinated and late bearing; dwarf is self pollinated and early.
  • Oil palm gives both palm oil (mesocarp) and kernel oil (seed).
  • Arabica vs robusta coffee: arabica is higher quality.
  • Rubber latex is from tapping, not from fruit.
  • Mist chamber is used for cuttings; hardening is the last step.
  • Shade net, polyhouse and low tunnel are different structures.
  • Cashew apple is the swollen stalk; the nut is the true fruit.
  • Rhinoceros beetle attacks coconut crown; tea mosquito bug attacks cashew.

One-liners

  • Coconut scientific name is Cocos nucifera.
  • Oil palm is Elaeis guineensis.
  • Cashew is Anacardium occidentale.
  • Tea is Camellia sinensis.
  • Rubber is Hevea brasiliensis.
  • Chowghat Orange Dwarf is a coconut variety.
  • Oil palm fruit bunches are called FFB.
  • Palm oil is the highest oil yielder per hectare.
  • Tea mosquito bug is a major cashew pest.
  • Coffee is grown under shade trees.
  • Polyhouse film is UV stabilised.
  • Hardening prepares nursery plants for the field.

Practice questions

  1. The botanical name of coconut is

    1. Elaeis guineensis
    2. Phoenix dactylifera
    3. Cocos nucifera
    4. Areca catechu
    Answer

    C. Cocos nucifera

    Coconut palm is Cocos nucifera.

  2. The botanical name of oil palm is

    1. Borassus flabellifer
    2. Cocos nucifera
    3. Areca catechu
    4. Elaeis guineensis
    Answer

    D. Elaeis guineensis

    Oil palm is Elaeis guineensis.

  3. Cashew has the botanical name

    1. Anacardium occidentale
    2. Theobroma cacao
    3. Hevea brasiliensis
    4. Coffea arabica
    Answer

    A. Anacardium occidentale

    Cashew is Anacardium occidentale.

  4. Para rubber is obtained from

    1. Theobroma cacao
    2. Coffea canephora
    3. Hevea brasiliensis
    4. Camellia sinensis
    Answer

    C. Hevea brasiliensis

    Hevea brasiliensis yields latex on tapping.

  5. Tea plant belongs to the species

    1. Piper nigrum
    2. Camellia sinensis
    3. Coffea arabica
    4. Areca catechu
    Answer

    B. Camellia sinensis

    Tea is Camellia sinensis.

  6. Cocoa is obtained from

    1. Hevea brasiliensis
    2. Elaeis guineensis
    3. Coffea arabica
    4. Theobroma cacao
    Answer

    D. Theobroma cacao

    Cocoa beans come from Theobroma cacao.

  7. Chowghat Orange Dwarf is a type of

    1. Coconut
    2. Oil palm
    3. Cashew
    4. Arecanut
    Answer

    A. Coconut

    It is a dwarf coconut variety grown for early bearing and tender nut.

  8. Which of the following is a tall coconut variety?

    1. Gangabondam
    2. Chowghat Orange Dwarf
    3. West Coast Tall
    4. Malayan Yellow Dwarf
    Answer

    C. West Coast Tall

    West Coast Tall is the common tall type. Gangabondam is a dwarf type.

  9. Tall coconut palms are mainly

    1. Self pollinated
    2. Seedless
    3. Cross pollinated
    4. Wind pollinated only by selfing
    Answer

    C. Cross pollinated

    Tall palms are cross pollinated, dwarf palms are self pollinated.

  10. In oil palm cultivation, FFB stands for

    1. Fine fertiliser blend
    2. Fresh fruit bunches
    3. Full flower budding
    4. Fibre filled bark
    Answer

    B. Fresh fruit bunches

    Harvest is of fresh fruit bunches taken to the mill.

  11. Palm oil (not kernel oil) is obtained from the

    1. Fleshy outer pulp (mesocarp) of the fruit
    2. Seed kernel
    3. Leaf base
    4. Hard shell
    Answer

    A. Fleshy outer pulp (mesocarp) of the fruit

    Mesocarp gives palm oil; kernel gives palm kernel oil.

  12. Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes) is a major pest of

    1. Cashew
    2. Coconut
    3. Coffee
    4. Tea
    Answer

    B. Coconut

    It bores into the crown of coconut palms.

  13. Tea mosquito bug is a serious pest of

    1. Rubber
    2. Coconut
    3. Oil palm
    4. Cashew
    Answer

    D. Cashew

    Helopeltis (tea mosquito bug) damages cashew shoots and nuts.

  14. Coffee is commonly grown

    1. In full flooding
    2. Only in saline soil
    3. In open desert
    4. Under shade trees
    Answer

    D. Under shade trees

    Coffee is a shade-loving plantation crop.

  15. Araku valley in the Eastern Ghats is well known for

    1. Coffee
    2. Rubber
    3. Oil palm
    4. Cashew only
    Answer

    A. Coffee

    Araku valley is known for its coffee plantations.

  16. The cashew apple is the

    1. Kernel
    2. Seed coat
    3. Swollen fleshy stalk
    4. True fruit
    Answer

    C. Swollen fleshy stalk

    The nut is the true fruit; the apple is the thickened stalk.

  17. A mist chamber in a nursery is mainly used to

    1. Grow mushrooms
    2. Maintain high humidity for rooting of cuttings
    3. Dry the seeds
    4. Store fertiliser
    Answer

    B. Maintain high humidity for rooting of cuttings

    Mist keeps cuttings from drying until roots form.

  18. Hardening of nursery plants means

    1. Gradual exposure to field conditions
    2. Pruning all roots
    3. Heavy fertilisation
    4. Deep storing in cold room
    Answer

    A. Gradual exposure to field conditions

    Hardening acclimatises plants before sale or planting.

  19. The cover used for a polyhouse is generally

    1. Jute sheet
    2. Plain paper
    3. UV-stabilised plastic film
    4. Wire mesh only
    Answer

    C. UV-stabilised plastic film

    Polyhouses use UV-stabilised plastic film.

  20. Growing plants in nutrient solution without soil is called

    1. Agroforestry
    2. Hydroponics
    3. Fallowing
    4. Mulching
    Answer

    B. Hydroponics

    Hydroponics uses nutrient solution as the root medium.

  21. Palms per hectare at 7.5 m x 7.5 m spacing are about

    1. 100
    2. 400
    3. 250
    4. 177
    Answer

    D. 177

    10,000 / 56.25 = 177.

  22. Oil palm is planted in a triangle at 9 m spacing. Area per palm is 0.866 x 81 = 70.15 m2. Palms per hectare are about

    1. 200
    2. 100
    3. 143
    4. 123
    Answer

    C. 143

    10,000 / 70.15 = 142.5, so about 143.

  23. A polyhouse is 40 m x 25 m. Its floor area is

    1. 1000 square metres
    2. 1250 square metres
    3. 650 square metres
    4. 100 square metres
    Answer

    A. 1000 square metres

    40 x 25 = 1000 m2.

  24. A crop gives 5 kg per square metre in a 1000 m2 polyhouse. The total yield is

    1. 1000 kg
    2. 500 kg
    3. 50 kg
    4. 5000 kg
    Answer

    D. 5000 kg

    5 x 1000 = 5000 kg.

  25. A nursery needs 1200 seedlings and 80% of seeds give seedlings. Seeds required are

    1. 960
    2. 1500
    3. 1440
    4. 1200
    Answer

    B. 1500

    1200 / 0.8 = 1500.

  26. A 35% shade net is used. If full sun is 100 units, light reaching the plants is

    1. 35 units
    2. 135 units
    3. 100 units
    4. 65 units
    Answer

    D. 65 units

    100 - 35 = 65.

  27. 100 coconut palms each give 80 nuts. The total number of nuts is

    1. 1800
    2. 8000
    3. 800
    4. 80,000
    Answer

    B. 8000

    100 x 80 = 8000.

  28. Cashew planted at 7 m x 7 m gives about how many plants per hectare?

    1. 400
    2. 143
    3. 204
    4. 156
    Answer

    C. 204

    10,000 / 49 = 204.

  29. Cashew planted at 8 m x 8 m gives about how many plants per hectare?

    1. 156
    2. 125
    3. 100
    4. 204
    Answer

    A. 156

    10,000 / 64 = 156.

  30. A 10 ha oil palm plantation at 143 palms per hectare needs plants numbering

    1. 1000
    2. 143
    3. 1430
    4. 14,300
    Answer

    C. 1430

    143 x 10 = 1430.

  31. A farmer wants 1800 coconut seedlings and expects 90% of nuts to give seedlings. Nuts to sow are

    1. 2000
    2. 1980
    3. 1900
    4. 1620
    Answer

    A. 2000

    1800 / 0.9 = 2000.

  32. A 500 m2 polyhouse is planted at 2 plants per m2. The number of plants is

    1. 250
    2. 1000
    3. 2000
    4. 500
    Answer

    B. 1000

    500 x 2 = 1000.

  33. A pro-tray has 98 cells. How many seedlings from 20 fully used trays?

    1. 2000
    2. 1800
    3. 980
    4. 1960
    Answer

    D. 1960

    98 x 20 = 1960.

  34. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. Tall coconut is late bearing 2. Dwarf coconut is self pollinated

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  35. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. Oil palm gives palm oil and palm kernel oil 2. Oil palm is a dioecious tree

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Oil palm is monoecious.

  36. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. Rubber latex is obtained from the fruit 2. Rubber latex is obtained by tapping the bark

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Latex flows from tapped bark.

  37. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. Arabica coffee is hardier than robusta 2. Tea grows best in alkaline soil

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    Robusta is hardier and tea prefers acidic soil.

  38. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. A mist chamber is used for rooting of cuttings 2. Hardening is the first step in a nursery

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Hardening is the last step.

  39. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. Shade nets are made in grades such as 35% to 75% 2. A low tunnel is a small plastic arch over a bed

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  40. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. The cashew apple is the true fruit 2. The cashew nut is the true fruit

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The nut is the true fruit.

  41. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. Rhinoceros beetle is a pest of cashew 2. Tea mosquito bug is a pest of coconut

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    They are pests of coconut and cashew respectively.

  42. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. A polyhouse can be naturally ventilated 2. Hydroponics needs soil as medium

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Hydroponics is soil-less.

  43. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. Oil palm needs plenty of water 2. Delay in milling of FFB raises free fatty acid

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  44. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. Cocoa cannot be grown as an intercrop 2. Cocoa is grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Cocoa is a shade tolerant intercrop.

  45. Consider the statements. Which of the statements is/are correct? 1. Tissue culture gives disease-free uniform plants 2. Auxin and cytokinin are used in tissue culture media

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

Page 1 of 1
‹
›