Village Agriculture, Horticulture and Sericulture Assistant · Chapter 9

Farm Machinery, Power and Implements

What to remember

Farm power comes from human, animal, mechanical (tractor, engine, power tiller), electrical and renewable sources. Tractors are the main source of mechanical power on Indian farms.
Implements are grouped by operation: primary tillage, secondary tillage, sowing and planting, interculture, plant protection, harvesting and threshing. Choose by soil, crop and power available.
Mechanisation raises timeliness and efficiency but needs care: correct selection, regular maintenance, proper calibration and safe operation. Custom hiring centres help small farmers.

Sources of farm power

Source	Typical power	Notes
Human	About 0.1 hp for a steady worker	Light work such as weeding, spraying
Bullock (pair)	About 1 hp for a pair	Traditional tillage, carting
Tractor	Small to large (about 15 to 60 hp or more)	Main mechanical source
Power tiller	About 8 to 12 hp (guideline)	Small and wet-land farms
Electric motor	Pumps, threshers, chaff cutters	Needs electric supply
Renewable	Solar pumps, biogas engines	Growing in use

Units: 1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts (about 0.746 kW). 1 kW = 1.34 hp. Work = force x distance. Power = work / time.

Tractor and its parts

A tractor is a self-propelled vehicle that gives power for drawn, mounted and stationary operations. Main parts:

Engine: diesel (compression ignition). Most tractors use 3 or 4 cylinder engines.
Transmission: clutch, gear box, differential, final drive.
Power take-off (PTO): a rotating shaft at the rear giving power to implements. Standard speed is 540 rpm (some at 1000 rpm).
Hydraulic system: lifts and lowers mounted implements through the three-point linkage.
Three-point linkage: two lower links and one top link; it connects mounted implements.
Drawbar: for pulling trailed implements.
Wheels and tyres: rear tyres are larger for traction; front tyres are smaller for steering.
Brakes, steering and electrical system.

Diesel engine cycle: four strokes - suction (intake of air), compression (air is highly compressed and heated), power (fuel injected and burns, pushing the piston), exhaust. No spark plug is used in a diesel engine; ignition comes from heat of compression. Petrol engines use a spark plug and carburettor and work on the Otto cycle; diesel engines work on the Diesel cycle.

Systems of an engine: fuel system, lubrication system, cooling system (water or air), air cleaning system and electrical system.

Tractor maintenance: daily checks of engine oil, coolant, fuel and tyre pressure; clean the air cleaner; grease the fittings; check the battery water; follow the periodic service schedule; tighten loose bolts; use clean fuel.

Safety: do not carry extra riders, keep the PTO shield in place, start from the driver's seat, lower implements when parked, use roll-over protection and do not turn at high speed on slopes.

Tillage implements

Primary tillage opens and loosens the soil to a good depth.

Mould board plough: cuts, lifts and inverts the soil. Parts include share, mould board, landside, frog, beam and handle.
Disc plough: concave rotating discs; good for hard, stony, sticky or trashy soils.
Chisel plough and sub-soiler: loosen the soil without inversion; sub-soiler breaks a hard pan.
Country (desi) plough: a simple wooden or iron plough drawn by bullocks.
Rotary tiller (rotavator): power-driven blades give fine seed beds in one pass.

Secondary tillage gives a finer seed bed after ploughing.

Harrows: disc harrow, spike tooth harrow, spring tooth harrow.
Cultivators: tine (spring or rigid) cultivator for stirring.
Levellers, planker, clod crusher and ridger.
Puddling in rice: wet-land tillage with a puddler or cage wheels to make soft mud and reduce percolation.

Sowing, planting and interculture

Seed drill: places seed in rows at set depth and spacing. Parts: seed box, metering device, furrow opener, seed tube, covering device.
Seed cum fertilizer drill: sows seed and puts fertilizer in one pass.
Planter: places seed at precise spacing (maize, cotton, groundnut).
Paddy transplanter (manual or self-propelled): plants rice seedlings in rows.
Zero-till drill: sows directly without prior ploughing.
Broadcasting is the oldest and least efficient method: uneven seed placement.
Interculture implements: hand hoe, blade harrow (guntaka), cono weeder and rotary weeder (rice), power weeder, wheel hoe.

Seed rate calibration: run the drill over a measured distance, collect the seed delivered, and scale it up to one hectare. Adjust the metering setting until the rate matches the recommendation.

Worked example (seed rate): row spacing 0.5 m. A drill drops 25 g of seed over a 50 m run on one row. Area of the run for one row = 50 x 0.5 = 25 m2. Seed per ha = 25 g x (10,000 / 25) = 10,000 g = 10 kg per ha.

Plant protection equipment

Knapsack sprayer (hand operated): a lever pumps liquid; held on the back; used for field crops.
Hand compression sprayer, foot sprayer and power sprayer (engine driven, for orchards and tall crops).
Duster: for powders; needs a calm time of day.
Mist blower and ultra-low-volume (ULV) sprayer: very small droplets, low water.
Drone sprayers are increasingly used where permitted; follow current rules.
Nozzles: hollow cone (insecticides and fungicides), flat fan or flood jet (herbicides). Calibrate before use: measure nozzle discharge for a fixed time and walking speed.

Spray volume (litres per ha) = discharge rate (litres per minute) x 10,000 / (swath width in m x speed in m per minute).

Worked example: discharge 0.9 litre per minute, swath 1.5 m, speed 40 m per minute. Volume = 0.9 x 10,000 / (1.5 x 40) = 9,000 / 60 = 150 litres per ha.

Harvesting and threshing equipment

Sickle: hand harvesting; reaper and reaper binder: cut (and tie) crops with mounted or self-propelled power.
Combine harvester: harvests, threshes and cleans in one pass; suited to rice, wheat and similar crops.
Thresher: separates grain from straw; multi-crop thresher uses a drum and concave.
Winnowing: separates grain from chaff by wind; winnower and blower fans do it mechanically.
Maize sheller, groundnut stripper and decorticator, cotton picker, sugarcane harvester, chaff cutter for fodder.
Post-harvest tools: dryers, graders, cleaners, rice mills.

Field capacity and cost

Theoretical field capacity (ha per hour) = width of implement (m) x speed (km per hour) / 10.
Effective field capacity = theoretical field capacity x field efficiency. Typical field efficiency is about 70 to 85 percent.
Time to cover an area (hours) = area / effective field capacity.
Worked example: A 2 m wide implement runs at 5 km per hour with field efficiency 80 percent. Theoretical capacity = 2 x 5 / 10 = 1 ha per hour. Effective = 0.8 ha per hour. Area 4 ha needs 5 hours.
Draft is the pull required to draw an implement. Draught power (hp) = draft (kgf) x speed (m per s) / 75. In kW: draft (kN) x speed (m per s).
Worked example: draft 150 kgf at 1.5 m per s gives 150 x 1.5 / 75 = 3 hp.
Wheel slip (percent) = (unloaded speed - loaded speed) / unloaded speed x 100.

Choosing and caring for machinery

Select a machine by crop, soil, field size, power available, cost and service backup. A small farm may do better with a power tiller or hired tractor than with an owned one. Fixed cost (depreciation, interest, shelter, insurance) is charged each year even if the machine is idle; variable cost (fuel, oil, repair, labour) rises with hours of use. Cost per hectare falls as the yearly area covered goes up. Good care means cleaning after use, oiling moving parts, sharpening shares and blades, storing under shade with the implement lowered, and keeping a log of hours. Use only the fuel and oil grade advised by the maker, and never refuel a hot engine.

Machinery management in AP

Custom hiring centres (CHCs) and village-level machinery banks: self-help or farmer groups give equipment on rent so small farmers can use costly machines.
Subsidy for farm mechanisation is available under national and state schemes; check the latest official guidelines for names and rates.
Village agriculture assistants help with registration, demonstration and guidance on use and safety.

Exam traps

PTO is a rotating shaft; the three-point linkage lifts and holds implements.
Diesel engines have no spark plug; petrol engines do.
Mould board plough inverts soil; chisel plough and sub-soiler do not.
Primary tillage opens soil; secondary tillage finishes the seed bed.
Seed drill places seed in rows; broadcasting scatters seed.
Hollow cone nozzle: insecticide; flat fan: herbicide.
1 hp = 746 W, not 1000 W.
Theoretical field capacity is before field efficiency is applied.

One-liners

1 hp = 746 watts.
Standard tractor PTO speed is 540 rpm.
Diesel engines ignite fuel by compression heat.
A four-stroke engine has suction, compression, power and exhaust strokes.
Disc plough suits hard, stony soils.
Sub-soiler breaks the hard pan.
Rotavator gives a fine tilth in one pass.
Seed drills place seed in rows at set depth.
Combine harvester cuts, threshes and cleans.
Winnowing removes chaff by wind.
Effective field capacity = theoretical capacity x field efficiency.
Knapsack sprayer is carried on the operator's back.

Practice questions

One horsepower is equal to about
1. 746 watts
2. 1,000 watts
3. 100 watts
4. 550 watts
Answer
A. 746 watts
1 hp = 746 W (0.746 kW).
The main source of mechanical power on modern Indian farms is the
1. windmill
2. human labour
3. tractor
4. bullock pair
Answer
C. tractor
Tractors give most mechanical farm power.
The standard speed of a tractor PTO is commonly
1. 100 rpm
2. 540 rpm
3. 54 rpm
4. 5,400 rpm
Answer
B. 540 rpm
540 rpm is the usual standard (1000 rpm on some).
In a diesel engine, ignition of fuel is caused by
1. a magneto
2. a spark plug
3. a carburettor
4. heat of compression
Answer
D. heat of compression
Compressed air gets hot enough to ignite injected fuel.
The correct order of strokes in a four-stroke engine is
1. exhaust, power, suction, compression
2. suction, compression, power, exhaust
3. compression, suction, exhaust, power
4. power, suction, compression, exhaust
Answer
B. suction, compression, power, exhaust
Intake, compression, combustion and exhaust.
Three-point linkage of a tractor is used to
1. filter the fuel
2. cool the radiator
3. attach and lift mounted implements
4. start the engine
Answer
C. attach and lift mounted implements
Two lower links and one top link carry the implement.
The power take-off (PTO) is
1. a brake pedal
2. a steering link
3. a fuel injector
4. a rotating shaft giving power to implements
Answer
D. a rotating shaft giving power to implements
It drives implements like rotavators and threshers.
A mould board plough
1. cuts, lifts and inverts the soil
2. only loosens soil without inversion
3. only levels the soil
4. only sows seed
Answer
A. cuts, lifts and inverts the soil
Inversion buries weeds and residue.
A sub-soiler is used to
1. sow seed
2. spray pesticides
3. break the hard pan below the plough layer
4. harvest crops
Answer
C. break the hard pan below the plough layer
It loosens deep compacted layers without inverting soil.
Which plough suits hard, stony, sticky or trashy soils?
1. Disc plough
2. Rotary hoe
3. Country plough
4. Mould board plough
Answer
A. Disc plough
Rotating discs ride over obstructions.
Primary tillage is done to
1. open and loosen the soil to a good depth
2. finish the seed bed only
3. spray the crop
4. thresh the grain
Answer
A. open and loosen the soil to a good depth
Secondary tillage prepares the finer seed bed.
Which of the following is a secondary tillage implement?
1. Sub-soiler
2. Mould board plough
3. Chisel plough
4. Harrow
Answer
D. Harrow
Harrows break clods and level the soil.
A rotavator is a
1. sprayer
2. power-driven tiller with rotating blades
3. hand hoe
4. bullock drawn plough
Answer
B. power-driven tiller with rotating blades
It gives fine tilth in one pass.
The main aim of puddling in rice is to
1. increase aeration
2. make soft mud and reduce water loss by percolation
3. remove weeds only
4. dry the soil
Answer
B. make soft mud and reduce water loss by percolation
Puddled soil holds water in the field.
Which part of a seed drill controls the quantity of seed sown?
1. Furrow opener
2. Covering device
3. Seed tube
4. Metering device
Answer
D. Metering device
The metering unit sets the seed rate.
Which is the least efficient sowing method?
1. Planter sowing
2. Seed drilling
3. Broadcasting
4. Dibbling
Answer
C. Broadcasting
Seed placement is uneven.
A seed cum fertilizer drill
1. only harvests crops
2. sows seed and places fertilizer in one pass
3. only threshes grain
4. only levels land
Answer
B. sows seed and places fertilizer in one pass
It saves time and ensures placement.
The hollow cone nozzle is generally used for
1. herbicides only
2. water only
3. dry powders
4. insecticides and fungicides
Answer
D. insecticides and fungicides
Flat fan nozzles suit herbicides.
A duster is used to apply
1. powder formulations
2. liquid herbicides only
3. seeds
4. fertilizer solution
Answer
A. powder formulations
Dusting is best done in calm conditions.
Combine harvester performs
1. only land levelling
2. only spraying
3. harvesting, threshing and cleaning in one pass
4. only seed treatment
Answer
C. harvesting, threshing and cleaning in one pass
It combines three operations.
Separating grain from chaff using wind is called
1. threshing
2. puddling
3. reaping
4. winnowing
Answer
D. winnowing
Chaff is lighter and blown away.
A pair of draught bullocks gives about
1. 10 hp
2. 0.01 hp
3. 1 hp
4. 50 hp
Answer
C. 1 hp
A pair of bullocks gives about one horsepower.
2 kW is about how many horsepower?
1. 27 hp
2. 2.7 hp
3. 1.5 hp
4. 0.7 hp
Answer
B. 2.7 hp
1 kW = 1.34 hp; 2 x 1.34 = 2.68.
A 15 hp engine delivers about how many watts?
1. 11,190 W
2. 1,119 W
3. 746 W
4. 15,000 W
Answer
A. 11,190 W
15 x 746 = 11,190.
A 1.5 m wide implement runs at 6 km per hour. Theoretical field capacity is
1. 0.9 ha per hour
2. 1.5 ha per hour
3. 0.09 ha per hour
4. 9 ha per hour
Answer
A. 0.9 ha per hour
1.5 x 6 / 10 = 0.9.
A 2 m wide implement at 5 km per hour with 80 percent field efficiency has an effective field capacity of
1. 1 ha per hour
2. 0.5 ha per hour
3. 0.8 ha per hour
4. 1.25 ha per hour
Answer
C. 0.8 ha per hour
Theoretical 1 ha per hour x 0.8 = 0.8.
At an effective capacity of 0.5 ha per hour, the time to cover 3 ha is
1. 1.5 hours
2. 6 hours
3. 15 hours
4. 3 hours
Answer
B. 6 hours
3 / 0.5 = 6.
An implement requires 120 kgf draft at 1.25 m per s. The draught power is
1. 1.2 hp
2. 20 hp
3. 0.2 hp
4. 2 hp
Answer
D. 2 hp
120 x 1.25 / 75 = 2 hp.
A sprayer discharges 1 litre per minute, swath 2 m, speed 50 m per minute. Spray volume per hectare is
1. 100 litres
2. 1,000 litres
3. 50 litres
4. 10 litres
Answer
A. 100 litres
1 x 10,000 / (2 x 50) = 100 L per ha.
A seed drill delivers 30 g of seed over a 60 m run on one row, row spacing 0.5 m. Seed rate per hectare is
1. 30 kg
2. 10 kg
3. 1 kg
4. 100 kg
Answer
B. 10 kg
Area = 60 x 0.5 = 30 m2; 30 g x 10,000 / 30 = 10,000 g.
If unloaded wheel speed is 5 km per h and loaded speed is 4.5 km per h, wheel slip is
1. 15 percent
2. 0.5 percent
3. 10 percent
4. 5 percent
Answer
C. 10 percent
(5 - 4.5) / 5 x 100 = 10.
Consider the statements. 1. A diesel engine uses a spark plug. 2. A petrol engine ignites fuel with a spark. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Diesel engines use compression ignition.
Consider the statements. 1. Mould board plough inverts the soil. 2. Chisel plough inverts the soil completely. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Chisel ploughs loosen without inversion.
Consider the statements. 1. Theoretical field capacity is reduced by field efficiency to get effective capacity. 2. Field efficiency is always 100 percent. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Turning and stoppages cut efficiency.
Consider the statements. 1. PTO shield should be kept in place during work. 2. Extra riders may be carried on a tractor. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Carrying extra riders is unsafe.
Consider the statements. 1. Custom hiring centres give machines on rent to farmers. 2. They help small farmers to use costly machines. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Consider the statements. 1. Hollow cone nozzles suit insecticides. 2. Flat fan nozzles suit herbicides. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both match standard nozzle use.
Match the pair: Rotary weeder
1. a combine
2. a pump
3. a seed grader
4. a hand pushed weeder used in rice
Answer
D. a hand pushed weeder used in rice
It uproots and buries weeds between rice rows.
Match the pair: Chaff cutter
1. plants rice
2. harvests cotton
3. sprays herbicide
4. chops fodder into small pieces
Answer
D. chops fodder into small pieces
It is used for cattle feed preparation.
Match the pair: Planker
1. lifts water
2. levels and smooths soil after ploughing
3. harvests grain
4. sows seed
Answer
B. levels and smooths soil after ploughing
It is a secondary tillage implement.
Match the pair: Thresher
1. separates grain from straw
2. cuts the crop only
3. sows seed
4. sprays water
Answer
A. separates grain from straw
It uses a drum and concave.
Which part carries pulling load of trailed implements on a tractor?
1. Radiator
2. Fan belt
3. Muffler
4. Drawbar
Answer
D. Drawbar
The drawbar is the pulling point.
Which system prevents overheating of an engine?
1. Fuel system
2. Lubrication system
3. Cooling system
4. Air cleaner
Answer
C. Cooling system
Water or air removes extra heat.
Which is a daily check on a tractor?
1. Changing the piston
2. Engine oil, coolant level and tyre pressure
3. Replacing the crankshaft
4. Rebuilding the pump
Answer
B. Engine oil, coolant level and tyre pressure
Daily checks prevent breakdowns.
A power tiller is best suited for
1. very large dry farms only
2. forests only
3. small and wet-land farms
4. mining areas
Answer
C. small and wet-land farms
Its small size suits small fields and puddling.

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