Livestock Breeds and Breeding

What to remember

• Indian cattle are grouped by use: milch (Sahiwal, Gir, Red Sindhi), draught (Ongole, Hallikar, Kangayam, Amritmahal) and dual-purpose (Hariana, Kankrej, Tharparkar, Deoni). Ongole and Punganur are well-known Andhra Pradesh breeds.
• Breeding improves the herd in two ways: better selection of parents, and better mating systems (inbreeding, outbreeding, crossbreeding, grading up). Artificial insemination (AI) spreads the genes of top bulls quickly.
• Key numbers: heat cycle is about 21 days in cow, buffalo, goat and sow; gestation is about 280 days in cow, 310 in buffalo, 150 in sheep and goat, and 114 in sow. Frozen semen is stored in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C.

Cattle breeds of India

Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) have a hump, loose skin and a good heat tolerance. They are grouped by the main use.

Points to remember:

• Sahiwal is the best Indian milch breed. It is reddish brown, comes from the Punjab region and tolerates heat and ticks well.
• Gir has a rounded, domed forehead and long curved ears. It comes from Gujarat (Saurashtra).
• Red Sindhi is a deep red milch breed from Sindh.
• Ongole (Nellore cattle) is a large white-grey draught breed of coastal Andhra. It is widely known in Brazil, where it was used to build the Nelore stock.
• Punganur is a very small dwarf cattle breed of the Rayalaseema region. It gives milk of high fat content.
• Hallikar (Karnataka) and Amritmahal (Karnataka) are famous trotting draught breeds.
• Kankrej is a dual-purpose breed of Gujarat and Rajasthan with lyre-shaped horns.
• Hariana is a white dual-purpose breed of Haryana.
• Deoni is a dual-purpose breed of Marathwada (Maharashtra-Karnataka border).

Buffalo, sheep, goat, pig and poultry breeds

Buffalo (water buffalo) provide about one-third of India's milk (crossbred and indigenous cattle together give more). Important breeds are in the table.

Exotic dairy cattle are of the Bos taurus type and have no hump.

Crossbreds: Karan Swiss (Sahiwal x Brown Swiss), Karan Fries (Tharparkar x Holstein Friesian), Frieswal (Sahiwal x Holstein Friesian), Sunandini (Kerala, Jersey/Brown Swiss with local cattle).

Breeding methods and terms

• Selection: choose the best animals as parents. Based on individual performance, pedigree, family and progeny records.
• Heritability (h²) is the fraction of the total variation (Vp) that is due to additive genes (Va): h² = Va / Vp. Milk yield has low heritability (about 0.25), body weight and growth have medium to high values. Low-h² traits improve slowly by selection; they respond better to crossbreeding.
• Repeatability shows how well one record predicts later records of the same animal.
• Progeny testing judges a bull from the records of his daughters. It is the most reliable way to rate a dairy bull.
• Selection differential (S) is the superiority of selected parents over the herd average. Genetic gain per generation = h² x S. Gain per year = h² x S divided by generation interval.
• Generation interval is the average age of parents when their offspring are born. A short interval speeds up progress.
• Breeding value is the sum of the additive gene effects of an animal. A parent passes on half of its breeding value to each offspring.

• Heterosis (hybrid vigour): crossbreds perform better than the average of their parents. It is highest in the F1 generation and falls in later generations. It is greatest for low-heritability traits such as fertility and survival.
• Inbreeding coefficient (F): rises with closer relation. Full-brother with full-sister, or parent with offspring, give F = 25 %. Half-brother with half-sister gives about 12.5 %.
• Grading up of a local cow with an exotic bull: first cross 50 % exotic, second cross 75 %, third cross 87.5 %. Each step adds half of what was missing.
• Culling removes poor animals from the herd. Cull the animals with low yield, poor fertility, serious disease or defects.

Reproduction and artificial insemination

Estrus (heat) is the period when the female accepts the male.

• Signs of heat in cow: restless, bellowing, mounting other cows, standing to be mounted (the sure sign), clear stringy mucus from the vulva, swollen vulva, drop in milk. Heat lasts about 12 to 18 hours in cattle; buffalo heat is quiet and is often missed ("silent heat").
• Time of AI: inseminate in the middle to late part of heat. A cow seen in heat in the morning is inseminated in the evening; one seen in the evening is inseminated next morning (the AM-PM rule). Ovulation comes about 10 to 14 hours after the end of heat.
• Semen collection: by the artificial vagina (best and most common for bulls), electro-ejaculator or massage.
• Extenders: egg-yolk citrate or milk based; glycerol is added as a protection against freezing. Antibiotics are added to control germs.
• Storage: frozen semen in straws (0.25 ml mini straw or 0.5 ml medium straw) in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C. Straws are thawed in water at about 35 to 37 °C before use and used within a few minutes.
• Advantages of AI: many cows can be served from one bull, no disease spread by mating, no need to keep bulls, record keeping, use of proven bulls across places and time.
• Pregnancy diagnosis: return to heat after 21 days means likely not pregnant; rectal palpation can confirm pregnancy from about 45 to 60 days.
• Calving interval target is 12 to 13 months. Age at first calving for crossbreds is about 30 to 36 months, for indigenous cows often more.
• Dry period of about 60 days before calving. Cows should be fed well in this period.

Worked examples

• 1. A herd has an average milk yield of 1,600 kg. The selected parents average 2,000 kg. h² = 0.25. S = 2,000 - 1,600 = 400 kg. Gain = 0.25 x 400 = 100 kg in the next generation.
• 2. Annual gain = 100 kg per generation. If the generation interval is 5 years, gain per year = 100 / 5 = 20 kg.
• 3. A cow is grade 75 % exotic. Mated with a pure exotic bull, the calf has (75 + 100) / 2 = 87.5 % exotic blood.
• 4. A cow is inseminated on the day of heat. She returns to heat 21 days later. She is not pregnant; she is re-inseminated.

Exam traps

• Murrah vs Jaffarabadi: Murrah has short tightly curled horns; Jaffarabadi is heavier with heavy drooping horns.
• Ongole vs Punganur: Ongole is large and used for draught; Punganur is a dwarf milch type.
• Sahiwal vs Gir: Sahiwal is from the Punjab region with short horns; Gir from Gujarat with a domed forehead and long curled ears.
• Inbreeding vs line breeding: line breeding is a milder form that keeps a famous ancestor's blood.
• Outcrossing vs crossbreeding: outcrossing is within a breed; crossbreeding is between breeds.
• Heritability vs repeatability: heritability is about the genes passing to offspring; repeatability is about the same animal's records.
• Heterosis vs inbreeding depression: opposite effects; heterosis is a gain, inbreeding depression is a loss.
• Karan Swiss vs Karan Fries: the exotic parent is Brown Swiss in Karan Swiss and Holstein Friesian in Karan Fries.

One-liners

• 1. Ongole is a draught breed of coastal Andhra Pradesh.
• 2. Punganur is a dwarf breed of the Rayalaseema region.
• 3. Murrah is the best milch buffalo breed.
• 4. Nellore is a hairy mutton sheep breed of Andhra Pradesh.
• 5. White Leghorn is the best egg-laying fowl.
• 6. Holstein Friesian gives the highest milk among cattle breeds.
• 7. Frozen semen is stored at -196 °C in liquid nitrogen.
• 8. Cow heat cycle is 21 days; sheep heat cycle is 17 days.
• 9. Sow gestation is 114 days.
• 10. Genetic gain per generation = h² x selection differential.
• 11. Heterosis is greatest in the F1 generation.
• 12. Progeny testing is the most reliable way to judge a dairy bull.

Practice questions

1. Which of the following is a well-known draught breed of cattle from coastal Andhra Pradesh?

   1. Sahiwal
   2. Gir
   3. Ongole
   4. Red Sindhi
   Answer

   C. Ongole

   Ongole is a large white-grey draught breed of coastal Andhra Pradesh.

2. Which breed is the best milch breed of buffalo in India?

   1. Pandharpuri
   2. Banni
   3. Surti
   4. Murrah
   Answer

   D. Murrah

   Murrah, with short tightly curled horns, gives the highest milk among buffalo breeds.

3. Punganur cattle are best known for being:

   1. a wool-producing breed
   2. a dwarf breed with milk of high fat content
   3. the largest draught breed
   4. a breed with the highest milk yield
   Answer

   B. a dwarf breed with milk of high fat content

   Punganur is a very small dwarf breed of the Rayalaseema region.

4. Which sheep breed of Andhra Pradesh is tall, hairy and reared mainly for mutton?

   1. Nellore
   2. Merino
   3. Marwari
   4. Chokla
   Answer

   A. Nellore

   Nellore sheep are hairy mutton-type sheep.

5. Which fowl breed is considered the best egg layer?

   1. Aseel
   2. White Leghorn
   3. Plymouth Rock
   4. Cornish
   Answer

   B. White Leghorn

   White Leghorn is the most efficient layer breed.

6. Which exotic cattle breed gives the highest milk yield?

   1. Holstein Friesian
   2. Jersey
   3. Ayrshire
   4. Guernsey
   Answer

   A. Holstein Friesian

   Holstein Friesian (Netherlands) is the highest yielding dairy breed.

7. Which Indian cattle breed is regarded as the best indigenous milch breed?

   1. Kangayam
   2. Hallikar
   3. Amritmahal
   4. Sahiwal
   Answer

   D. Sahiwal

   Sahiwal combines good milk yield with heat and tick tolerance.

8. The average length of the heat (oestrous) cycle in a cow is:

   1. 28 days
   2. 14 days
   3. 21 days
   4. 35 days
   Answer

   C. 21 days

   Cow, buffalo, goat and sow all have a cycle of about 21 days.

9. The gestation period of a sow is:

   1. 150 days
   2. 280 days
   3. 114 days
   4. 63 days
   Answer

   C. 114 days

   Sow gestation is 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days, i.e. 114 days.

10. Frozen bull semen is stored in liquid nitrogen at:

    1. 0 °C
    2. -196 °C
    3. -80 °C
    4. -20 °C
    Answer

    B. -196 °C

    Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of -196 °C.

11. Karan Swiss is a crossbred developed from Sahiwal and:

    1. Holstein Friesian
    2. Ayrshire
    3. Jersey
    4. Brown Swiss
    Answer

    D. Brown Swiss

    Karan Swiss = Sahiwal x Brown Swiss; Karan Fries uses Holstein Friesian.

12. The mating of animals more closely related than the average of the herd is called:

    1. inbreeding
    2. outcrossing
    3. crossbreeding
    4. grading up
    Answer

    A. inbreeding

    Inbreeding is mating of related animals.

13. The sure sign of heat in a cow is:

    1. dry vulva
    2. loss of appetite alone
    3. standing to be mounted by other cows
    4. a rise in milk yield
    Answer

    C. standing to be mounted by other cows

    Standing heat is the sure sign; milk usually falls and mucus is clear.

14. Which breed of goat is large, has a Roman nose and is a good milch type?

    1. Jamunapari
    2. Malabari
    3. Black Bengal
    4. Osmanabadi
    Answer

    A. Jamunapari

    Jamunapari goats are large milch goats with a convex (Roman) nose.

15. Which buffalo breed is the heaviest of the Indian breeds?

    1. Bhadawari
    2. Murrah
    3. Nili-Ravi
    4. Jaffarabadi
    Answer

    D. Jaffarabadi

    Jaffarabadi of Gujarat is the heaviest buffalo breed.

16. A cow shows heat in the morning. For best results, she should be inseminated:

    1. after 3 days
    2. in the evening of the same day
    3. only after 48 hours
    4. immediately at midnight before
    Answer

    B. in the evening of the same day

    The AM-PM rule: heat seen in the morning is served in the evening.

17. Kadaknath is a black-meat fowl of:

    1. Madhya Pradesh
    2. Punjab
    3. Assam
    4. Kerala
    Answer

    A. Madhya Pradesh

    Kadaknath is a desi black-meat breed from Madhya Pradesh.

18. Which of these is an exotic breed of pig?

    1. Niang Megha
    2. Tenyi Vo
    3. Ghoongroo
    4. Large White Yorkshire
    Answer

    D. Large White Yorkshire

    Large White Yorkshire is exotic; the others are indigenous pig types.

19. Heritability (h²) is the ratio of:

    1. dominance variance to additive variance
    2. total variance to additive variance
    3. additive genetic variance to total phenotypic variance
    4. environmental variance to genetic variance
    Answer

    C. additive genetic variance to total phenotypic variance

    h² = Va / Vp.

20. Which trait generally has the lowest heritability?

    1. Wool fibre length
    2. Fertility
    3. Body weight
    4. Growth rate
    Answer

    B. Fertility

    Fertility and survival have low h² and respond better to crossbreeding.

21. Hybrid vigour (heterosis) is highest in:

    1. the F5 generation
    2. purebred parents
    3. inbred lines
    4. the F1 generation
    Answer

    D. the F1 generation

    Heterosis is highest in F1 and declines in later generations.

22. A cow has 50 % exotic blood. She is mated to a pure exotic bull. The calf will have exotic blood of:

    1. 50 %
    2. 62.5 %
    3. 75 %
    4. 87.5 %
    Answer

    C. 75 %

    (50 + 100) / 2 = 75 %.

23. Mating of a full brother with a full sister gives an inbreeding coefficient of:

    1. 25 %
    2. 12.5 %
    3. 6.25 %
    4. 50 %
    Answer

    A. 25 %

    Full-sib mating gives F = 25 %; half-sib mating gives 12.5 %.

24. The safest and most reliable method to judge the breeding worth of a dairy bull is:

    1. pedigree of the dam alone
    2. progeny testing
    3. colour of coat
    4. body size
    Answer

    B. progeny testing

    A bull is judged by the performance of his daughters.

25. The mating of a horse with a donkey is an example of:

    1. outcrossing
    2. species hybridisation
    3. line breeding
    4. grading up
    Answer

    B. species hybridisation

    Different species mating gives a mule, which is usually sterile.

26. Glycerol is added to the semen extender mainly to:

    1. increase sperm count
    2. feed the sperm
    3. kill bacteria
    4. protect sperm during freezing
    Answer

    D. protect sperm during freezing

    Glycerol acts as a cryoprotectant.

27. In buffalo, a main problem in detecting estrus is:

    1. silent heat
    2. very long heat
    3. very short cycle of 7 days
    4. no ovulation
    Answer

    A. silent heat

    Buffalo often show weak or silent signs of heat.

28. Which pair of breed and use is correctly matched?

    1. Gir - draught only
    2. Hallikar - draught
    3. Ongole - exotic dairy
    4. Nellore - fine wool
    Answer

    B. Hallikar - draught

    Hallikar is a Karnataka trotting draught breed.

29. A trait with low heritability is best improved by:

    1. culling a few animals
    2. mass selection alone
    3. crossbreeding to get heterosis
    4. very strong inbreeding
    Answer

    C. crossbreeding to get heterosis

    Low-h² traits respond poorly to selection but show high heterosis.

30. Reducing the generation interval, with other factors same, will:

    1. decrease heritability
    2. decrease genetic gain per year
    3. increase genetic gain per year
    4. have no effect
    Answer

    C. increase genetic gain per year

    Gain per year = gain per generation / generation interval.

31. Inbreeding depression is mainly caused by:

    1. fall in mutation rate
    2. increase in heterozygosity
    3. new gene introduced from outside
    4. increase in homozygous recessive genes
    Answer

    D. increase in homozygous recessive genes

    Inbreeding brings recessive harmful genes to the homozygous state.

32. Herd average milk yield is 1,800 kg. Selected parents average 2,200 kg. If h² = 0.30, the expected genetic gain per generation is:

    1. 120 kg
    2. 180 kg
    3. 60 kg
    4. 400 kg
    Answer

    A. 120 kg

    S = 2,200 - 1,800 = 400; gain = 0.30 x 400 = 120 kg.

33. If the genetic gain per generation is 120 kg and the generation interval is 6 years, the gain per year is:

    1. 30 kg
    2. 720 kg
    3. 12 kg
    4. 20 kg
    Answer

    D. 20 kg

    120 / 6 = 20 kg per year.

34. A local cow is graded up with pure exotic bulls for three successive generations. The third-generation female carries exotic blood of:

    1. 75 %
    2. 87.5 %
    3. 93.75 %
    4. 62.5 %
    Answer

    B. 87.5 %

    50 % -> 75 % -> 87.5 %.

35. A cow came into heat on day 0 and was not inseminated. Her next expected heat is on day:

    1. 21
    2. 42
    3. 7
    4. 14
    Answer

    A. 21

    The heat cycle is 21 days.

36. A buffalo is inseminated and conceives. At a gestation of 310 days, if served on 1 January (non-leap year), calving is expected about:

    1. 1 January next year
    2. 1 December
    3. 7 November
    4. 15 September
    Answer

    C. 7 November

    1 Jan + 310 days = day 311 of the year = 7 November.

37. A sow is served on 1 March. The expected farrowing date is about (using 114 days):

    1. 23 June
    2. 15 July
    3. 30 June
    4. 1 June
    Answer

    A. 23 June

    March 1 + 114 days: 30 remaining March (to 31 Mar = 30 days), April 30 (60), May 31 (91), plus 23 days = 23 June.

38. A frozen semen straw holds 0.25 ml with 20 million sperm per straw. How many sperm are in 10 straws?

    1. 50 million
    2. 2,500 million
    3. 20 million
    4. 200 million
    Answer

    D. 200 million

    10 x 20 million = 200 million sperm.

39. Consider the statements: 1. Ongole is a dual or draught breed of coastal Andhra Pradesh. 2. Punganur is a large-bodied breed used mainly for heavy draught. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Statement 2 is wrong: Punganur is a dwarf breed.

40. Consider the statements: 1. Heritability of milk yield is generally low to medium. 2. Heterosis is highest in the F1 generation. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both statements are true.

41. Consider the statements: 1. Grading up uses a pure bull repeatedly on local females. 2. Inbreeding increases heterozygosity. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Inbreeding increases homozygosity, so statement 2 is wrong.

42. Consider the statements: 1. Artificial insemination needs the bull to be present at each mating. 2. Frozen semen can be used long after the death of the bull. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    AI does not need the bull at each mating; statement 1 is wrong.

43. Consider the statements: 1. Murrah buffalo has tightly curled short horns. 2. Jaffarabadi is a small-bodied breed of Gujarat. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Jaffarabadi is the heaviest breed; statement 2 is wrong.

44. Match: (a) Karan Fries, (b) Frieswal, (c) Karan Swiss. With parent crosses: (i) Sahiwal x Brown Swiss, (ii) Tharparkar x Holstein Friesian, (iii) Sahiwal x Holstein Friesian. Which is correct?

    1. a-i, b-ii, c-iii
    2. a-ii, b-iii, c-i
    3. a-ii, b-i, c-iii
    4. a-iii, b-i, c-ii
    Answer

    B. a-ii, b-iii, c-i

    Karan Fries = Tharparkar x HF; Frieswal = Sahiwal x HF; Karan Swiss = Sahiwal x Brown Swiss.

45. Match the breed with the species: (a) Beetal, (b) Nellore, (c) Cornish. Which is correct?

    1. a-sheep, b-goat, c-fowl
    2. a-buffalo, b-sheep, c-goat
    3. a-goat, b-fowl, c-sheep
    4. a-goat, b-sheep, c-fowl
    Answer

    D. a-goat, b-sheep, c-fowl

    Beetal is a goat, Nellore a sheep and Cornish a meat fowl.