Pedagogical Concepts

What to remember

• Curriculum is wider than syllabus. It has four basic components: objectives, content, learning experiences (methods) and evaluation.
• Activity-based and joyful learning means children learn by doing, playing and exploring in a fear-free classroom. The teacher plans the activity; the child builds the understanding.
• Approach, method and technique are three levels: an approach is a belief about how learning happens; a method is a plan based on it; a technique is a single classroom step. A reflective practitioner is a teacher who thinks about his or her own teaching in order to improve it.

Pedagogy and curriculum

Pedagogy is the art and science of teaching: how a teacher plans, teaches and assesses so that children learn. The word is from Greek words meaning "to lead a child". Curriculum is the whole plan of learning that a school offers, including what is taught, how and why, and how learning is checked. A syllabus is only the list of topics to be covered in a subject, usually for an examination. So a syllabus is a part of the curriculum, and not the other way round.

Components of a curriculum

Ralph Tyler's well-known rationale asks four questions: what purposes should the school try to reach; what experiences help reach them; how can these be organised; and how can we tell they are reached. Hilda Taba, a later thinker, gave a model built from the teacher's own classroom experience (a "grassroots" approach).

Types of curriculum

• Explicit (overt) curriculum: written, planned and officially taught.
• Hidden curriculum: things children learn from school life, such as habits, attitudes, how teachers treat children, which are not written anywhere. The idea is linked with Philip Jackson (*Life in Classrooms*).
• Null curriculum: what the school does not teach, and so children get no chance to learn. The term is linked with Elliot Eisner.
• Co-curricular activities: sports, art, clubs; they are part of the whole curriculum and not "extra".
• Subject-centred, child-centred and activity-centred curricula differ in where the focus lies: the content, the child's interests, or learning by doing.
• Core curriculum: a common set of subjects for all learners.
• Spiral curriculum: the same concept is returned to again and again at increasing depth. This idea is associated with Jerome Bruner.

Activity-based learning

Activity-based learning (ABL) means that children learn concepts through tasks that they do themselves, using materials, games, role play, experiments, drawing and group work. Features:

• The child is active; the teacher is a facilitator.
• Learning is shown through products (models, charts, stories), not only through answers.
• Children move through learning steps at their own pace, often with ladders or cards for self-learning. Such ABL models are used in several states of India for primary classes.
• Group work, peer help and multigrade teaching become easy.
• The idea has roots in the thinking of Dewey ("learning by doing"), Piaget and Montessori.

Teacher's role: plan the activity with a clear learning aim; prepare low-cost materials; give clear steps; watch and ask questions; let children share what they found; and link the activity back to the concept.

Joyful learning

• Learning that is free from fear, boredom and pressure, where children enjoy school.
• Methods: songs, rhymes, stories, games, art, drama, puzzles, outdoor work and local-context activity.
• The play-way method (play as the main way of learning) came from the ideas of Froebel and Montessori; H. Caldwell Cook used the term in teaching English.
• Joy is a means to learning, not a replacement for it. Activities must still be linked to learning outcomes.
• The Right to Education Act and NCF 2005 support a child-friendly, fear-free school with no physical punishment or mental harassment.

Method, approach, strategy and technique

The three-level model of approach, method and technique was proposed by Edward Anthony for language teaching. In short: approach = the "belief", method = the "plan", technique = the "action".

Some well-known methods

Approach-wise, the teacher-centred (transmission) approach focuses on the teacher's delivery. The learner-centred approach focuses on the child's activity, and the constructivist approach says that each learner builds knowledge from experience.

The reflective practitioner

• A reflective practitioner is a teacher who regularly looks at what he or she does in the classroom, asks why it worked or not, and changes practice.
• The idea of reflection comes from John Dewey, who defined reflective thinking as careful and active thinking about a belief. Donald Schön wrote *The Reflective Practitioner* (1983) and described two kinds:
• Reflection-in-action: thinking and adjusting while teaching (for example, changing an explanation when children look confused).
• Reflection-on-action: thinking afterwards about what happened.
• Tools of reflection: a teacher diary or journal, lesson reflection notes, portfolios, feedback from students, peer observation, video of lessons, and action research.
• Action research is a small classroom study by the teacher: identify a problem, plan an action, act, observe, and reflect (Kurt Lewin and later Stephen Corey are linked with it).
• Qualities: open-mindedness, curiosity, willingness to change, honesty about weaknesses, and sharing with colleagues.
• NCF 2005 and NEP 2020 both want teachers to be thoughtful, reflective professionals.

Worked classroom example

Suppose a teacher in Class 3 wants children to understand the idea of "half". An explicit objective is written: "the child can show half of a whole object". The content is the concept of half. The learning experience is an activity: children fold paper, share a roti or a fruit between two friends and compare the parts. Evaluation is by observation and a small task: the teacher asks each child to show half of a strip. After the lesson, the teacher notes in a diary which children found it hard and plans a second activity for them. In this one example, all four components of the curriculum and the reflective cycle are visible. The hidden curriculum is also at work: if the teacher listens patiently to wrong answers, children learn that mistakes are safe.

Principles of a good learning activity

• It has a clear aim linked to a learning outcome.
• It starts from what the child already knows.
• It uses local, low-cost materials from the child's surroundings.
• It gives every child a role, including children who are shy or slow.
• It allows more than one answer or way of working where possible.
• It ends with sharing and a short summary by the teacher.
• It is checked for safety and time.

Teacher-centred and learner-centred classrooms

Exam traps

• A syllabus is narrower than the curriculum.
• Hidden curriculum is what is learnt unintentionally; null curriculum is what is left out.
• Spiral means returning to ideas at a higher level; it is not the same as repeating.
• Method is wider than technique; approach is the broadest of the three.
• Inductive goes example to rule; deductive goes rule to example.
• Project method: Kilpatrick; Dalton plan: Parkhurst; Heuristic: Armstrong.
• Reflection-in-action happens during teaching; reflection-on-action happens after.
• Joyful learning is not "no learning"; it still has aims.

One-liners

• 1. Curriculum has objectives, content, experiences and evaluation.
• 2. A syllabus is part of the curriculum.
• 3. Hidden curriculum is learnt without being written.
• 4. Null curriculum is what is not taught.
• 5. Bruner is linked with the spiral curriculum.
• 6. ABL puts the child at the centre of activity.
• 7. Joyful learning means fear-free learning.
• 8. Anthony's levels are approach, method and technique.
• 9. Kilpatrick developed the project method.
• 10. Armstrong is linked with the heuristic method.
• 11. Schön wrote The Reflective Practitioner.
• 12. Action research is a teacher's own classroom study.

Practice questions

1. Which of the following is the broadest term?

   1. Syllabus
   2. Lesson plan
   3. Curriculum
   4. Question paper
   Answer

   C. Curriculum

   A syllabus is part of the curriculum, which covers the whole plan of learning.

2. Which of the following is NOT a basic component of a curriculum?

   1. Evaluation
   2. Content
   3. Objectives
   4. School uniform
   Answer

   D. School uniform

   The four components are objectives, content, learning experiences and evaluation.

3. The curriculum component that answers 'Why teach?' is

   1. evaluation
   2. objectives
   3. content
   4. learning experiences
   Answer

   B. objectives

   Objectives state the aim of teaching.

4. Things children learn from school life without being written in any plan form the

   1. hidden curriculum
   2. explicit curriculum
   3. core curriculum
   4. null curriculum
   Answer

   A. hidden curriculum

   Hidden curriculum covers attitudes and habits learnt indirectly.

5. What the school does not teach, so children get no chance to learn it, is the

   1. spiral curriculum
   2. null curriculum
   3. overt curriculum
   4. hidden curriculum
   Answer

   B. null curriculum

   Null curriculum is linked with Elliot Eisner.

6. The spiral curriculum is associated with

   1. Jerome Bruner
   2. Edward Anthony
   3. Elliot Eisner
   4. Philip Jackson
   Answer

   A. Jerome Bruner

   Bruner proposed returning to concepts at increasing depth.

7. In activity-based learning the teacher mainly acts as a

   1. dictator
   2. only a lecturer
   3. examiner only
   4. facilitator
   Answer

   D. facilitator

   Children do the learning; the teacher guides.

8. The project method was developed by

   1. Parkhurst
   2. Armstrong
   3. Kilpatrick
   4. Schon
   Answer

   C. Kilpatrick

   Kilpatrick built on Dewey's ideas.

9. The Dalton Plan is linked with

   1. H. E. Armstrong
   2. Kilpatrick
   3. Helen Parkhurst
   4. Bruner
   Answer

   C. Helen Parkhurst

   It uses individual assignments.

10. The heuristic method of teaching science is linked with

    1. H. E. Armstrong
    2. Helen Parkhurst
    3. Froebel
    4. Kilpatrick
    Answer

    A. H. E. Armstrong

    The learner discovers answers through own inquiry.

11. Who wrote The Reflective Practitioner?

    1. Kurt Lewin
    2. Donald Schon
    3. Jerome Bruner
    4. John Dewey
    Answer

    B. Donald Schon

    Schon's book appeared in 1983.

12. The three levels approach, method and technique were proposed by

    1. Hilda Taba
    2. Ralph Tyler
    3. Philip Jackson
    4. Edward Anthony
    Answer

    D. Edward Anthony

    Anthony proposed them for language teaching.

13. Joyful learning is best described as learning that is

    1. without any aim
    2. without a teacher
    3. free from fear, boredom and pressure
    4. only through tests
    Answer

    C. free from fear, boredom and pressure

    It still has learning outcomes.

14. Thinking and adjusting while teaching, for example changing an explanation when pupils look puzzled, is

    1. action research
    2. summative evaluation
    3. reflection-on-action
    4. reflection-in-action
    Answer

    D. reflection-in-action

    Schon's term for thinking during action.

15. Thinking about a lesson after it is over is

    1. reflection-on-action
    2. reflection-in-action
    3. hidden curriculum
    4. spiral learning
    Answer

    A. reflection-on-action

    This is reflection after the event.

16. A teacher keeps a diary and notes what worked in each lesson. This practice is part of

    1. transmission teaching
    2. reflective practice
    3. lecture method
    4. rote learning
    Answer

    B. reflective practice

    Diaries and journals are tools of reflection.

17. In the three-level model, a belief about how languages are learnt is a(n)

    1. technique
    2. method
    3. approach
    4. test
    Answer

    C. approach

    Approach is the theory; method is the plan; technique is the step.

18. A teacher asks a question to check understanding in the middle of a lesson. This is a

    1. technique
    2. curriculum
    3. syllabus
    4. approach
    Answer

    A. technique

    Technique is a specific classroom step.

19. The inductive method moves from

    1. a test to a result
    2. a rule to examples
    3. a result to a book
    4. examples to a rule
    Answer

    D. examples to a rule

    Deductive is the reverse.

20. Learning by doing is the core of which method?

    1. Drill method
    2. Project method
    3. Lecture method
    4. Dictation method
    Answer

    B. Project method

    The project method gives learners purposeful tasks.

21. The play-way method is linked with the ideas of

    1. Froebel and Montessori
    2. Schon and Lewin
    3. Tyler and Taba
    4. Kilpatrick and Parkhurst
    Answer

    A. Froebel and Montessori

    Play is a main way of learning in their views.

22. A teacher plans a lesson on fractions with paper folding and sharing a roti. This is an example of

    1. a null curriculum
    2. a purely lecture approach
    3. an examination drill
    4. an activity-based approach
    Answer

    D. an activity-based approach

    Children learn the concept through tasks that they do.

23. Which tool helps a teacher reflect and improve practice?

    1. Copying lessons from a guide
    2. Increasing homework only
    3. Avoiding feedback
    4. Peer observation of lessons
    Answer

    D. Peer observation of lessons

    Feedback from colleagues supports reflection.

24. Action research is

    1. a national census
    2. a board examination
    3. a small classroom study done by the teacher to solve a problem
    4. a government report
    Answer

    C. a small classroom study done by the teacher to solve a problem

    The cycle is plan, act, observe and reflect.

25. Philip Jackson is linked with which idea?

    1. Null curriculum
    2. Hidden curriculum
    3. Spiral curriculum
    4. Core curriculum
    Answer

    B. Hidden curriculum

    His book Life in Classrooms described it.

26. Ralph Tyler's rationale asks four questions. Which is one of them?

    1. How can we tell whether the purposes are being achieved?
    2. Which school should be closed?
    3. How much should teachers be paid?
    4. How many holidays are needed?
    Answer

    A. How can we tell whether the purposes are being achieved?

    Tyler asked about purposes, experiences, organisation and evaluation.

27. A class has a rule that the quietest children are always praised, so noisy but eager children stop asking questions. This is an example of

    1. spiral curriculum
    2. hidden curriculum
    3. null curriculum
    4. explicit curriculum
    Answer

    B. hidden curriculum

    Children learn an unwritten message about behaviour.

28. A school teaches no art or music, so children never learn these. This illustrates

    1. hidden curriculum
    2. spiral curriculum
    3. null curriculum
    4. activity curriculum
    Answer

    C. null curriculum

    What is left out is the null curriculum.

29. Which statement about method and technique is correct?

    1. A technique is wider than a method
    2. Both mean exactly the same
    3. A method is wider than a technique
    4. A technique is a theory of learning
    Answer

    C. A method is wider than a technique

    Approach is broadest, then method, then technique.

30. The action research cycle is

    1. plan, act, observe, reflect
    2. test, rank, punish, repeat
    3. teach, tell, test, tally
    4. read, copy, memorise, write
    Answer

    A. plan, act, observe, reflect

    The cycle repeats to improve practice.

31. Consider these statements: 1. A syllabus is a part of the curriculum. 2. A curriculum is only a list of examination topics. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The curriculum is the whole plan of learning.

32. Consider these statements: 1. Objectives, content, experiences and evaluation are the four components. 2. Evaluation tells how far learning has happened. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

33. Consider these statements about joyful learning: 1. It has no learning aims. 2. It uses songs, stories and games. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Activities are still linked to learning outcomes.

34. Consider these statements: 1. Hidden curriculum is learnt unintentionally. 2. Null curriculum is what is left out. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both definitions are correct.

35. Consider these statements about activity-based learning: 1. The child is active in learning. 2. The teacher only reads from the textbook. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The teacher facilitates and plans activities.

36. Consider these statements: 1. Approach is the broadest of approach, method and technique. 2. Technique is a specific classroom step. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

37. Consider these statements: 1. The inductive method moves from rule to examples. 2. The deductive method moves from rule to examples. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Inductive moves from examples to rule.

38. Consider these statements about a reflective practitioner: 1. Uses a diary or journal to think about lessons. 2. Avoids feedback from colleagues. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Feedback and peer observation are encouraged.

39. Consider these statements: 1. Schon described reflection-in-action. 2. Schon described reflection-on-action. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both kinds are described by Schon.

40. Consider these statements: 1. The Dalton Plan was developed by Kilpatrick. 2. The project method was developed by Kilpatrick. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The Dalton Plan is linked with Helen Parkhurst.

41. Consider these statements: 1. Bruner's spiral curriculum returns to ideas at a deeper level. 2. The spiral curriculum means repeating the same lesson without change. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Spiral means increasing depth, not plain repetition.

42. Consider these statements: 1. The play-way method is the same as the lecture method. 2. The play-way method came from the ideas of Froebel and Montessori. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Play-way means learning through play.

43. Consider these statements about the learner-centred classroom: 1. Assessment is continuous and in many forms. 2. The teacher is the only source of knowledge. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The teacher is a guide in a learner-centred class.

44. Consider these statements: 1. Co-curricular activities are separate from the curriculum and unimportant. 2. Co-curricular activities are part of the whole curriculum. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    They are part of the curriculum.

45. Which method is an example of a teacher-centred method?

    1. Project method
    2. Discovery method
    3. Group inquiry
    4. Lecture method
    Answer

    D. Lecture method

    In a lecture the teacher delivers and learners mostly listen.