Planning: Year, Unit and Lesson Plans, TLM and Dale's Cone of Experience

What to remember

• Planning moves from wide to narrow: year (annual) plan, then unit plan, then lesson plan. Each level states objectives, content, methods, TLM and assessment.
• A lesson plan is written in terms of learning outcomes that can be observed. Well-known models are Herbart's five steps, Gagné's nine events and the 5E model.
• Dale's Cone of Experience orders learning experiences from concrete (direct experience) at the base to abstract (verbal symbols) at the top. Dale gave no percentages of remembering.

Why plan?

Planning makes teaching purposeful. It saves time, links ideas, ensures the full syllabus is covered, helps choose methods and TLM, and makes assessment fair. A planned teacher is more confident and can handle problems calmly. Plans must be flexible: they are guides, not chains. Planning needs knowledge of the syllabus, learners' level, available resources, and school calendar.

Year plan (annual plan)

A year plan divides the whole syllabus over the academic year.

• Count working days and periods after removing holidays, exams, sports and festival days.
• Divide the syllabus into units and give each a number of periods.
• Mark dates for formative and summative assessments, revision and remedial days.
• Include co-curricular events, field visits and projects.
• Keep some buffer days for unplanned loss of time.
• Share the plan with the head teacher and review each term.

Unit plan

A unit is a group of related topics around one big idea (for example, "Our Food" or "Force and Motion"). A unit plan includes:

• 1. Title and class; number of periods.
• 2. Unit objectives / learning outcomes.
• 3. Prior knowledge (entry behaviour) and likely misconceptions.
• 4. Content outline and key concepts.
• 5. Teaching-learning activities and methods.
• 6. TLM and other resources.
• 7. Assessment (formative tasks, unit test).
• 8. Remedial and enrichment plan.
• 9. Linkage with other subjects and real life.

Henry C. Morrison's unit plan has five steps: exploration, presentation, assimilation, organisation, recitation (a final presentation by the learner).

Lesson plan

A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed plan for one period. It answers: What will learners learn? How will they learn it? With what? How will I know they learned?

Main parts:

• General information: class, subject, topic, period, date.
• Learning outcomes (specific and measurable): use action verbs such as list, explain, calculate, draw, compare. Outcomes cover knowledge, understanding, application and skills.
• Previous knowledge and a linking question.
• Introduction / motivation: a story, question, riddle, object or demonstration.
• Presentation / development: activities, explanation, discussion, demonstration.
• TLM to be used.
• Practice / application: exercises and group tasks.
• Evaluation: oral questions, short tasks, exit question.
• Summary / closure and follow-up / homework.
• Reflection: after the class, the teacher notes what worked and what to change.

Common planning models.

The 5E model suits science and activity-based teaching and fits the constructivist view of NCF 2005: learners build knowledge by doing and discussing.

Types of lesson plan. Detailed (for beginners and student teachers), outline (for experienced teachers), and activity-based plans. Micro-teaching (Dwight Allen, Stanford) practises one skill at a time, such as questioning or explaining, in a small class for a short time (about 5 to 7 minutes) with feedback and re-teaching.

Teaching-Learning Material (TLM)

TLM means all materials and aids that help a teacher teach and a learner learn. Teaching aids make abstract ideas clear, hold attention, give real experience, and save time.

Classification.

Qualities of a good TLM. It should be relevant to the objective, simple, accurate, attractive, large enough to see, durable, safe, low cost, and suited to the age and local culture. It should be used at the right time and then removed; a TLM used too long distracts learners. The teacher should try it out before class. TLM should include all learners: for example, tactile material for learners with visual impairment.

Low-cost and no-cost TLM: made from local waste and natural things: seeds, sticks, leaves, bottles, boxes, clay. Teachers and children can make them together; this builds creativity and ownership. Government schemes such as Samagra Shiksha give a TLM grant to teachers (check the latest rules).

Dale's Cone of Experience

Edgar Dale (1946) proposed a cone to show how experiences move from direct and concrete to symbolic and abstract. The base is the most concrete.

Key points. The cone is a continuum, not a ladder where one must start at the bottom for every topic. A good lesson mixes levels. The lower levels give richer sensory experience; higher levels are efficient for summary and abstract ideas. The cone has three broad bands: doing (levels 1 to 3), observing (levels 4 to 8) and symbolic (levels 9 and 10). A widely shared claim that people remember "10 percent of what they read, 20 percent of what they hear" and so on is not from Dale; he gave no such figures.

Writing good learning outcomes

Write what the learner will do, not what the teacher will do. A good outcome has an action verb, the content, and sometimes a condition or standard.

Verbs by level (revised Bloom): remember (name, list), understand (explain, summarise), apply (solve, use), analyse (compare, classify), evaluate (justify, judge), create (design, compose).

A short sample lesson flow (Environmental Science, Class IV, "Plants around us")

• 1. Engage (3 min): the teacher shows a leaf and asks, "Where did this come from?"
• 2. Explore (15 min): groups of five collect leaves in the school garden and sort them by shape.
• 3. Explain (10 min): each group reports; the teacher names the parts of a leaf.
• 4. Elaborate (8 min): learners draw a plant and label it.
• 5. Evaluate (4 min): an exit question, "Name two parts of a leaf."
• 6. Follow-up: observe a plant at home and note one thing.

Planning for all learners

A good plan expects differences in speed, language and ability. The teacher adds tiered tasks (easy, medium, challenge), uses pictures and the home language where needed, plans peer help, and keeps time for remedial work. For children with special needs, adapt the task, the material and the time instead of lowering the aim. Add ICT where it truly helps, such as a short video or a simulation, but keep a non-digital back-up in case of power failure. After the lesson, a short reflection (What did learners achieve? Which activity failed? What will I change?) makes the next plan better.

Exam traps

• Year plan comes first; the lesson plan is the most detailed.
• Herbart's five steps include Association and Generalisation, not "Exploration".
• Morrison's unit plan is not the Herbartian plan.
• 5E: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate.
• Micro-teaching is practice of one skill; it is not a full lesson.
• In Dale's cone, verbal symbols are at the top (most abstract), direct purposeful experience at the base.
• TLM is not only "audio-visual aids"; charts and real objects count too.
• Objectives should be measurable; "to understand well" is vague.

One-liners

• 1. A year plan divides the syllabus across the working days.
• 2. A unit is a group of related topics around one idea.
• 3. Learning outcomes use observable action verbs.
• 4. Herbart's steps: preparation, presentation, association, generalisation, application.
• 5. Gagné's model has nine events of instruction.
• 6. 5E model was developed by Bybee.
• 7. Micro-teaching was developed at Stanford by Dwight Allen.
• 8. Teaching aids should be used at the right time and then removed.
• 9. Low-cost TLM uses local waste material.
• 10. Edgar Dale proposed the Cone of Experience.
• 11. The base of Dale's cone is direct purposeful experience.
• 12. The top of the cone is verbal symbols.

Practice questions

1. Which plan divides the whole syllabus across the working days of the academic year?

   1. Unit plan
   2. Lesson plan
   3. Daily diary
   4. Year plan
   Answer

   D. Year plan

   A year (annual) plan spreads the syllabus over the year.

2. A group of related topics built around one big idea is a

   1. period
   2. term
   3. session
   4. unit
   Answer

   D. unit

   A unit is a coherent set of topics.

3. The most detailed plan, written for a single period, is the

   1. year plan
   2. lesson plan
   3. school calendar
   4. unit plan
   Answer

   B. lesson plan

   A lesson plan is made for one period.

4. Which educator proposed the five formal steps: preparation, presentation, association, generalisation, application?

   1. Edgar Dale
   2. Robert Gagné
   3. Rodger Bybee
   4. J. F. Herbart
   Answer

   D. J. F. Herbart

   These are the Herbartian steps.

5. The 5E model of lesson planning was developed by

   1. Bybee
   2. Herbart
   3. Morrison
   4. Dale
   Answer

   A. Bybee

   Rodger Bybee developed the 5E instructional model.

6. Which of these is NOT one of the 5Es?

   1. Engage
   2. Explore
   3. Elaborate
   4. Examine
   Answer

   D. Examine

   The 5Es: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate.

7. The unit plan with exploration, presentation, assimilation, organisation and recitation is associated with

   1. B. F. Skinner
   2. H. C. Morrison
   3. J. F. Herbart
   4. Jean Piaget
   Answer

   B. H. C. Morrison

   Morrison's unit plan has these five steps.

8. Gagné's list of instructional steps has how many events?

   1. Ten
   2. Five
   3. Nine
   4. Seven
   Answer

   C. Nine

   Gagné proposed nine events of instruction.

9. The first event in Gagné's nine events is

   1. gaining attention
   2. giving feedback
   3. assessing performance
   4. enhancing retention
   Answer

   A. gaining attention

   Teaching starts by gaining learners' attention.

10. Micro-teaching was developed at Stanford University by

    1. Henry Giroux
    2. Jacob Kounin
    3. Dwight Allen
    4. Edgar Dale
    Answer

    C. Dwight Allen

    Allen and colleagues developed micro-teaching.

11. Micro-teaching is mainly used to practise

    1. a single teaching skill
    2. the school timetable
    3. a whole syllabus
    4. an annual plan
    Answer

    A. a single teaching skill

    One skill at a time, in a short and small class.

12. Edgar Dale proposed the

    1. Ladder of Inference
    2. Cone of Experience
    3. Wheel of Learning
    4. Pyramid of Needs
    Answer

    B. Cone of Experience

    Dale's cone ranks experiences from concrete to abstract.

13. The base of Dale's cone is

    1. verbal symbols
    2. visual symbols
    3. recordings
    4. direct purposeful experience
    Answer

    D. direct purposeful experience

    The base is first-hand experience.

14. The top of Dale's cone is

    1. verbal symbols
    2. field trips
    3. demonstrations
    4. direct experience
    Answer

    A. verbal symbols

    Spoken or printed words are the most abstract.

15. In Dale's cone, which comes immediately after contrived experiences moving upward?

    1. Visual symbols
    2. Field trips
    3. Dramatised experiences
    4. Exhibits
    Answer

    C. Dramatised experiences

    Order: direct, contrived, dramatised, demonstrations, field trips.

16. Which of these is the most concrete in Dale's cone?

    1. Listening to a talk on farming
    2. Visiting a farm and growing a crop
    3. Reading a description of farming
    4. Viewing a chart of farming
    Answer

    B. Visiting a farm and growing a crop

    Doing the real activity is direct experience.

17. A map, chart or graph belongs to which level of Dale's cone?

    1. Verbal symbols
    2. Contrived experiences
    3. Field trips
    4. Visual symbols
    Answer

    D. Visual symbols

    Charts, maps and diagrams are visual symbols.

18. Which statement about Dale's cone is correct?

    1. It places verbal symbols at the base.
    2. It shows a range from concrete to abstract experiences.
    3. It requires teachers to start every lesson at the base.
    4. It states that people remember 10 percent of what they read.
    Answer

    B. It shows a range from concrete to abstract experiences.

    Dale gave no memory percentages; the cone is a continuum.

19. A well-written learning outcome should be

    1. observable and measurable
    2. about the teacher's actions
    3. vague
    4. unrelated to content
    Answer

    A. observable and measurable

    Outcomes describe what the learner will do.

20. Which verb is best for a measurable outcome?

    1. Know
    2. Understand well
    3. Calculate
    4. Appreciate deeply
    Answer

    C. Calculate

    Calculate can be observed and checked.

21. Which of these is a visual, non-projected aid?

    1. A radio
    2. An LCD projector
    3. A video clip
    4. A wall chart
    Answer

    D. A wall chart

    Charts are visual aids without projection.

22. A radio programme is an example of an

    1. activity kit
    2. audio aid
    3. visual aid
    4. projected aid
    Answer

    B. audio aid

    Radio gives sound only.

23. A teacher shows a video clip on volcanoes. This is an

    1. audio aid only
    2. non-projected visual aid
    3. verbal symbol only
    4. audio-visual aid
    Answer

    D. audio-visual aid

    Video combines sound and image.

24. Low-cost TLM is best made from

    1. costly imported kits only
    2. local waste and natural material
    3. branded toys only
    4. closed software only
    Answer

    B. local waste and natural material

    Local material keeps cost low and builds creativity.

25. A teaching aid should be shown

    1. throughout the entire period
    2. only after the lesson
    3. at the right time and then removed
    4. only to the best learners
    Answer

    C. at the right time and then removed

    Overuse of an aid distracts learners.

26. In the 5E sample lesson, children collect leaves in the school garden and sort them. This is the

    1. Explore stage
    2. Evaluate stage
    3. Elaborate stage
    4. Engage stage
    Answer

    A. Explore stage

    Hands-on investigation is the Explore stage.

27. A teacher asks an exit question at the end of a lesson. This belongs to

    1. association
    2. entry behaviour
    3. evaluation
    4. motivation
    Answer

    C. evaluation

    Exit questions check learning at the close.

28. A teacher reviews what worked and what failed after teaching and notes changes for next time. This is

    1. a year plan
    2. a blueprint
    3. grading
    4. reflection
    Answer

    D. reflection

    Reflection improves future plans.

29. Before writing a unit plan the teacher finds what learners already know. This is called

    1. entry behaviour
    2. hidden curriculum
    3. summative assessment
    4. praxis
    Answer

    A. entry behaviour

    Entry behaviour is prior knowledge and skills.

30. Consider the statements about planning: 1. A year plan includes dates of assessments and revision. 2. A plan should never be changed once made.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Plans should be flexible.

31. Consider the statements about Dale's cone: 1. It states exact memory percentages for each level. 2. It is a continuum from concrete to abstract.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Dale gave no percentages.

32. Consider the statements about micro-teaching: 1. It practises one skill at a time. 2. It is done in a small class for a short time.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both describe micro-teaching.

33. Consider the statements about Herbart's steps: 1. Association or comparison is one of the steps. 2. Generalisation is one of the steps.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are Herbartian steps.

34. Consider the statements about learning outcomes: 1. They should describe what the learner will be able to do. 2. They should be written as the teacher's actions only.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Outcomes focus on learners.

35. Consider the statements about TLM: 1. Its use should always make the lesson longer. 2. It should be accurate and suitable for learners' age.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    TLM should help save time.

36. Consider the statements about a unit plan: 1. It includes unit objectives, activities and assessment. 2. It is made for a single period only.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    A single-period plan is a lesson plan.

37. Consider the statements about lesson planning: 1. The plan may include remedial and enrichment tasks. 2. A non-digital back-up is useful when ICT is used.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are good practice.

38. Consider the statements about Dale's cone: 1. Field trips are placed below exhibits. 2. Demonstrations are placed above visual symbols.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Order from base: demonstrations, field trips, exhibits, ... then symbols; demonstrations are below visual symbols.

39. Match the model with its step or event: 1. Herbart 2. Bybee 3. Gagné 4. Morrison P. Engage Q. Application R. Gain attention S. Recitation

    1. 1-Q, 2-R, 3-P, 4-S
    2. 1-P, 2-Q, 3-S, 4-R
    3. 1-S, 2-P, 3-R, 4-Q
    4. 1-Q, 2-P, 3-R, 4-S
    Answer

    D. 1-Q, 2-P, 3-R, 4-S

    Herbart ends with application; Bybee starts with Engage; Gagné with gaining attention; Morrison ends with recitation.

40. Match the aid with its type: 1. Wall chart 2. Radio 3. Video 4. Science kit P. Audio Q. Audio-visual R. Visual S. Activity-based

    1. 1-P, 2-R, 3-S, 4-Q
    2. 1-S, 2-P, 3-Q, 4-R
    3. 1-R, 2-Q, 3-P, 4-S
    4. 1-R, 2-P, 3-Q, 4-S
    Answer

    D. 1-R, 2-P, 3-Q, 4-S

    Chart visual; radio audio; video audio-visual; kit activity-based.

41. Arrange Dale's levels from most concrete to most abstract: P. Field trips Q. Verbal symbols R. Direct experience S. Visual symbols

    1. Q, S, P, R
    2. R, P, S, Q
    3. R, S, P, Q
    4. P, R, S, Q
    Answer

    B. R, P, S, Q

    Direct experience, field trips, visual symbols, verbal symbols.

42. Consider the statements about planning for all learners: 1. For children with special needs the aim should be lowered, not the task adapted. 2. Tiered tasks (easy, medium, challenge) can be planned.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Adapt the task, material and time; keep the aim.

43. Consider the statements: 1. A good TLM is relevant to the learning outcome. 2. A large and attractive TLM is useful even if it is wrong.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    TLM must be accurate.

44. Consider the statements about the year plan: 1. It is prepared after the academic year is over. 2. Holidays and exam days are removed before counting working periods.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    It is prepared before or at the start of the year.

45. Which part of a lesson plan states what learners already know and links it to the new topic?

    1. Homework
    2. Blueprint of the year
    3. Summary
    4. Previous knowledge and linking question
    Answer

    D. Previous knowledge and linking question

    The opening link connects prior knowledge to the new idea.