Teaching English: Methodology · Chapter 2

Aims and Objectives of Teaching English

What to remember

An aim is a broad, long-term purpose; an objective is a short, specific, measurable change in the learner after a lesson. Aims guide the whole course. Objectives guide one lesson.
Bloom's taxonomy gives three domains: cognitive (thinking), affective (feeling) and psychomotor (doing). Objectives are written as observable behaviour, such as "the learner will read a passage and answer five questions."
In India, English is taught as a second language and a window to the world (a language of access). The mother tongue remains the base of learning, and English is added to it, not put in its place.

Why English is taught in Indian schools

English came into Indian education through Macaulay's Minute (1835) and Wood's Despatch (1854). After Independence, the Radhakrishnan Commission (1948-49), the Secondary Education (Mudaliar) Commission (1952-53) and the Kothari Commission (1964-66) discussed the place of English. The Kothari Commission supported the three-language formula. The National Policy on Education (1986) and the National Education Policy (2020) also support multilingualism. NEP 2020 advises that the mother tongue or home language should be the medium at least up to Grade 5 and preferably longer.

The National Curriculum Framework 2005 treated English as a matter of access and equity. It said that English is a language of opportunity, and that children should meet it in a meaningful way together with their own languages. English is a second language for most Indian children. It is also called a library language and a link language, because it links people of different states and gives access to books, science and technology.

In Andhra Pradesh, Telugu is the first language and English is the second language in most schools. The state has also encouraged English-medium teaching in government schools in recent years. A teacher must therefore teach English as a skill and also help children learn other subjects through English.

General aims of teaching English

1. To help the learner understand spoken English (listening).
2. To help the learner speak English with reasonable fluency and clarity.
3. To help the learner read with understanding, and read for pleasure.
4. To help the learner write correctly, neatly and meaningfully.
5. To develop the habit of using a dictionary and reference books.
6. To develop interest in literature and the power of appreciation.
7. To make the learner a confident user of English for study, work and daily life.

The first four aims are called the language skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing (LSRW). The natural order of learning is listening, speaking, reading, writing. Listening and reading are receptive skills. Speaking and writing are productive skills.

Aims and objectives compared

Point	Aim	Objective
Scope	Broad, general	Narrow, specific
Time	Long term (a stage or course)	Short term (a lesson or unit)
Wording	General statement	Observable behaviour
Measurement	Hard to measure	Can be tested
Example	To develop reading skill	The learner reads a 100-word passage silently and answers 4 of 5 questions

An aim is also called a goal. A general objective sits between the aim and the specific objective. A specific objective (also called an instructional or behavioural objective) is written in terms of what the learner will do. Good objectives are SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time-bound.

Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives

Benjamin Bloom led a group that described the cognitive domain in 1956. Krathwohl and others described the affective domain (1964). Psychomotor domains were described later by Simpson, Harrow and Dave.

Original cognitive levels (1956): Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation.

Revised levels (2001, Anderson and Krathwohl): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyse, Evaluate, Create. In the revised version the nouns became verbs, and "Create" became the top level.

Domain	Concern	Levels or examples
Cognitive	Knowledge and thinking	Remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, create
Affective	Feelings, attitudes, values	Receiving, responding, valuing, organising, characterising
Psychomotor	Physical and manual skill	Handwriting, pronunciation movements, using a dictionary or computer

Specific objectives in English teaching

The commonly used list for English lessons is:

Knowledge: the learner recalls words, rules, facts and spellings.
Understanding: the learner explains meaning, gives examples, tells main ideas.
Application: the learner uses words and rules in new sentences and situations.
Skill: the learner listens, speaks, reads and writes with ease.
Appreciation: the learner enjoys and values a poem, story or play.

Each objective has specifications, which are the behaviours that show the objective is achieved. For example, under "Understanding", the specifications could be: gives the meaning of a word from context, finds the main idea, and states the theme.

Writing a behavioural objective. Use action verbs that can be seen or tested: list, name, define, write, read aloud, match, classify, compare, compose. Avoid vague verbs such as "know", "learn" or "appreciate" when you want a testable objective. Compare two objectives:

Weak: "The learner will know the past tense."
Strong: "The learner will write five sentences in the simple past tense using given verbs."

Robert Mager is known for stressing behavioural objectives that state the learner's behaviour, the conditions and the standard of performance.

Objectives by the level of schooling

Primary stage: to build listening and speaking, to teach letters and sounds, to read simple words and sentences, to build a small stock of words, and to create interest and confidence.
Upper primary stage: to read short texts, write guided sentences and paragraphs, learn simple grammar through use, and start using the dictionary.
Secondary stage: to read with understanding, write letters, notices and short essays, develop study skills, and appreciate prose and poetry.
Higher stage: to use English for study and communication, and to deal with longer and more abstract texts.

Sample objectives for a lesson

Lesson focus	Domain	Sample specific objective
Poem on nature	Affective	The learner recites the poem with correct rhythm and tells which lines she liked
Reading passage	Cognitive (understand)	The learner finds the main idea and writes it in one sentence
Vocabulary	Cognitive (apply)	The learner uses five new words in sentences of her own
Dialogue practice	Skill	The learner speaks a four-line dialogue with a partner without reading
Handwriting	Psychomotor	The learner writes a line in joined letters with even spacing

Three-language formula and the English teacher

The three-language formula asks every state to teach the mother tongue or regional language, Hindi or another Indian language, and English or another modern language. The formula was recommended in the 1960s and repeated in later policies. For the English teacher this means two things. First, English should not be taught as if the learner has no language. Second, the learner's first language can be a bridge when meaning is unclear.

The classroom angle

The teacher states the objective of every lesson in the lesson plan, and plans activities and tests that match it.
The objective is about the learner, not the teacher. "To teach the past tense" is a teacher's activity. "The learner will use the past tense" is a learner outcome.
Activities should involve all four skills where possible.
Evaluation should check each objective. Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) looks at both scholastic and co-scholastic growth.
Remember the principle of learning by doing and from known to unknown, simple to complex, concrete to abstract.

Exam traps

1. Aim vs objective: aim = broad and long term; objective = specific and short term. Do not swap them.
2. Bloom 1956 vs 2001: the old top level is Evaluation; the revised top level is Create. "Synthesis" was renamed "Create".
3. Receptive vs productive: listening and reading are receptive; speaking and writing are productive.
4. Cognitive vs affective: appreciation and attitude belong to the affective domain, not the cognitive.
5. Psychomotor skills: handwriting and pronunciation practice are psychomotor, not cognitive.
6. Second language vs foreign language: English in India is a second language because it is used widely inside the country.
7. Weak verbs: "know", "understand", "appreciate" are hard to observe; "list", "write", "compare" are observable.
8. Natural order: the natural order is LSRW. Writing is learned last, even though it is a productive skill.

One-liners

1. Aims are broad; objectives are specific.
2. Bloom's taxonomy first appeared in 1956.
3. The three domains are cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
4. Revised Bloom (2001): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyse, Evaluate, Create.
5. The affective domain was described by Krathwohl and others.
6. English in India is a second language and a library language.
7. NCF 2005 treated English as a language of access and opportunity.
8. The Kothari Commission supported the three-language formula.
9. NEP 2020 supports the mother tongue as the medium at least up to Grade 5.
10. Listening and reading are receptive skills; speaking and writing are productive skills.
11. A good objective is stated in observable behaviour.
12. Appreciation of poetry is an affective objective.

Practice questions

Which statement best describes an educational aim?
1. A homework exercise
2. A broad, long-term purpose of a course
3. A single classroom activity
4. A test item for one lesson
Answer
B. A broad, long-term purpose of a course
An aim is broad and long term; objectives are specific.
A specific instructional objective is best written in terms of
1. the textbook's contents
2. the school's timetable
3. the teacher's activities
4. the learner's observable behaviour
Answer
D. the learner's observable behaviour
Objectives state what the learner will do.
Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives was first published in
1. 1926
2. 1956
3. 1976
4. 1996
Answer
B. 1956
Bloom and colleagues described the cognitive domain in 1956.
Which is NOT a domain of Bloom's taxonomy?
1. Psychomotor
2. Cognitive
3. Affective
4. Linguistic
Answer
D. Linguistic
The three domains are cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
In the revised taxonomy (2001), the highest cognitive level is
1. Apply
2. Create
3. Evaluate
4. Analyse
Answer
B. Create
Synthesis was renamed Create and placed at the top.
Developing a liking for poetry belongs to which domain?
1. Affective
2. Cognitive
3. Psychomotor
4. Perceptual only
Answer
A. Affective
Interests, attitudes and appreciation are affective.
Neat handwriting as an objective belongs to which domain?
1. Cognitive
2. Affective
3. Social
4. Psychomotor
Answer
D. Psychomotor
Handwriting involves physical coordination, a psychomotor skill.
Which pair of skills is receptive?
1. Speaking and writing
2. Reading and writing
3. Listening and speaking
4. Listening and reading
Answer
D. Listening and reading
Listening and reading take in language; speaking and writing produce it.
The natural order of learning language skills is
1. Reading, writing, listening, speaking
2. Listening, speaking, reading, writing
3. Speaking, writing, listening, reading
4. Writing, reading, speaking, listening
Answer
B. Listening, speaking, reading, writing
A child first hears, then speaks, then reads, then writes.
English in India is generally regarded as a
1. mother tongue
2. dead language
3. second language
4. classical language
Answer
C. second language
It is learned after the first language and is widely used within the country.
Macaulay's Minute on education was issued in
1. 1882
2. 1835
3. 1854
4. 1904
Answer
B. 1835
Macaulay's Minute dates from 1835; Wood's Despatch is 1854.
Wood's Despatch is associated with the year
1. 1937
2. 1813
3. 1835
4. 1854
Answer
D. 1854
It was issued in 1854 and is called the Magna Carta of Indian education.
Which commission is linked with the three-language formula being supported at the school stage in the 1960s?
1. Wardha Commission
2. Sadler Commission
3. Kothari Commission
4. Hunter Commission
Answer
C. Kothari Commission
The Kothari Commission (1964-66) supported the formula.
NEP 2020 advises that the medium of instruction should preferably be the home language or mother tongue at least up to
1. Grade 2
2. Grade 10
3. Grade 5
4. Grade 12
Answer
C. Grade 5
NEP 2020 says at least Grade 5 and preferably Grade 8 and beyond.
The highest level in the original (1956) cognitive list is
1. Synthesis
2. Evaluation
3. Comprehension
4. Application
Answer
B. Evaluation
The original order ends with Evaluation; the revised one ends with Create.
A teacher writes: 'The learner will write five sentences in the simple past tense.' This is
1. an aim
2. a policy
3. a syllabus
4. a behavioural objective
Answer
D. a behavioural objective
It states a measurable learner behaviour.
Which verb is the most suitable for a testable objective?
1. Realise
2. Appreciate
3. Know
4. Compare
Answer
D. Compare
'Compare' can be observed; the others are vague.
Which of these is a teacher-centred (not learner-centred) objective?
1. The learner uses the past tense in speech
2. To teach the past tense
3. The learner writes a diary entry
4. The learner reads aloud with correct stress
Answer
B. To teach the past tense
An objective should describe the learner's outcome, not the teacher's act.
Which phrase best describes English in the NCF 2005 view?
1. A language to replace the mother tongue
2. A language only for literature
3. A language of access and opportunity
4. A language for the elite only
Answer
C. A language of access and opportunity
NCF 2005 treated English as a matter of access and equity.
Specifications of an objective are
1. the books used for the lesson
2. the time table of the lesson
3. the behaviours that show the objective is reached
4. the marks given for the lesson
Answer
C. the behaviours that show the objective is reached
Specifications are the observable behaviours linked to an objective.
English is called a 'library language' because it
1. is spoken in libraries
2. gives access to books, science and technology
3. is the language of the state library
4. has the most letters
Answer
B. gives access to books, science and technology
It gives access to world knowledge.
Which of the following is an objective at the skill level?
1. The learner lists ten nouns from memory
2. The learner recalls the rule for articles
3. The learner names the author of a poem
4. The learner reads a passage silently at a reasonable speed
Answer
D. The learner reads a passage silently at a reasonable speed
Reading with ease and speed is a skill; the others are knowledge.
Which statement is correct about the domains? 1. Appreciation is an affective objective. 2. Pronunciation practice involves the psychomotor domain.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are right: appreciation is affective; articulation is a motor skill.
Which statements are correct? 1. An aim is more specific than an objective. 2. Objectives can be tested.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Aims are broader; objectives are specific and testable.
Which statements are correct? 1. Writing is a receptive skill. 2. Listening is a receptive skill.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Writing is productive; listening is receptive.
Which statements are correct? 1. Bloom's revised taxonomy places Create at the top. 2. The original taxonomy had six levels.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are right.
Which statements are correct? 1. English in India is a foreign language in the strict sense. 2. English is a link language across states.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
English is a second language in India and works as a link language.
Which statements are correct? 1. A good objective is stated in observable terms. 2. The verb 'appreciate' is the best verb for a testable objective.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
'Appreciate' is vague; observable verbs are preferred.
Which statements are correct about SMART objectives? 1. S stands for Specific. 2. T stands for Time-bound.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are standard parts of the acronym.
Which statements are correct? 1. The affective domain was described by Krathwohl and others. 2. The affective domain deals with physical skills.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Affective deals with feelings, attitudes and values, not physical skills.
Which statements are correct? 1. NEP 2020 supports multilingualism. 2. NEP 2020 rejects the mother tongue as a medium.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
It supports mother tongue medium at least up to Grade 5.
Match the objective with its domain. (a) Recites a poem with joy (b) Spells words correctly (c) Writes in joined letters
1. (a) psychomotor, (b) cognitive, (c) affective
2. (a) cognitive, (b) affective, (c) psychomotor
3. (a) affective, (b) psychomotor, (c) cognitive
4. (a) affective, (b) cognitive, (c) psychomotor
Answer
D. (a) affective, (b) cognitive, (c) psychomotor
Joy is affective; spelling recall is cognitive; joined writing is psychomotor.
Match: (a) Knowledge (b) Application (c) Skill. Which sets the right example for each?
1. (a) speaks fluently, (b) recalls a rule, (c) uses the rule in new sentences
2. (a) recalls a rule, (b) speaks fluently, (c) uses the rule in new sentences
3. (a) uses the rule in new sentences, (b) speaks fluently, (c) recalls a rule
4. (a) recalls a rule, (b) uses the rule in new sentences, (c) speaks fluently
Answer
D. (a) recalls a rule, (b) uses the rule in new sentences, (c) speaks fluently
Knowledge is recall; application is use in new contexts; skill is fluent performance.
A teacher wants learners to judge which of two letters is more polite. This is a level of
1. Evaluate
2. Remember
3. Apply
4. Understand
Answer
A. Evaluate
Judging against criteria is Evaluation.
Which is an aim, not an objective?
1. To list ten nouns from the board
2. To write a four-line dialogue
3. To read a 100-word passage and answer five questions
4. To develop a habit of reading for pleasure
Answer
D. To develop a habit of reading for pleasure
The first is broad and long term.
Learners write a short story using new words. In the revised taxonomy this is mainly
1. Create
2. Understand
3. Remember
4. Analyse
Answer
A. Create
Producing something new is Create.
Learners separate a passage into fact and opinion. This is mainly
1. Remember
2. Analyse
3. Create
4. Apply
Answer
B. Analyse
Breaking material into parts is Analyse.
Which principle of teaching is followed when a teacher moves from simple words to complex sentences?
1. Abstract to concrete
2. Unknown to known
3. Simple to complex
4. Complex to simple
Answer
C. Simple to complex
The usual maxims are known to unknown, simple to complex, concrete to abstract.
The three-language formula in schools includes the mother tongue or regional language, Hindi or another Indian language, and
1. Sanskrit only
2. a foreign classical language only
3. no third language
4. English or another modern language
Answer
D. English or another modern language
The third part is English or another modern language.
Which is NOT a language skill in the LSRW set?
1. Speaking
2. Grammar
3. Reading
4. Listening
Answer
B. Grammar
LSRW stands for Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing.
Setting an objective before planning activities helps a teacher to
1. avoid using a textbook
2. teach without a lesson plan
3. skip evaluation
4. choose suitable activities and tests
Answer
D. choose suitable activities and tests
Activities and evaluation should match the objective.
The teacher says: 'By the end of the lesson, learners will read a notice and tell what it asks them to do.' The main objective is
1. Appreciation
2. Handwriting
3. Understanding
4. Knowledge
Answer
C. Understanding
Telling what a notice asks is comprehension.
Which is the best reason for keeping the mother tongue as the base while teaching English?
1. It helps learners connect new ideas with what they already know
2. It makes English unnecessary
3. It stops speaking practice
4. It avoids listening practice
Answer
A. It helps learners connect new ideas with what they already know
Prior knowledge in the first language supports learning.
Which of the following is a co-scholastic outcome rather than a purely scholastic one?
1. Developing confidence to speak before others
2. Spelling a word correctly
3. Naming the parts of speech
4. Memorising a rule
Answer
A. Developing confidence to speak before others
Confidence and attitudes belong to personal-social growth.
Which skill is learned last in the natural sequence of language learning?
1. Reading
2. Writing
3. Listening
4. Speaking
Answer
B. Writing
The sequence is listening, speaking, reading, writing.

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1.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 1: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.
2.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 2: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.
3.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 3: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.
4.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 4: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.
5.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 5: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.
6.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 6: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.
7.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 7: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.
8.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 8: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.
9.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 9: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.
10.Read the passage and choose the best option for blank number 10: For centuries, sailors ___(1)___ relied on the stars to navigate across open ocean, long ___(2)___ modern instruments existed. ___(3)___ a clear night sky, an experienced navigator could determine ___(4)___ position with surprising accuracy by observing the positions of specific constellations. This skill, ___(5)___ was passed down through generations, required years ___(6)___ practice to master fully. ___(7)___ the invention of the magnetic compass, navigation became somewhat easier, though sailors ___(8)___ continued to rely on celestial navigation ___(9)___ a backup method when instruments failed or ___(10)___ damaged during storms. Today, satellite-based positioning systems ___(11)___ made traditional navigation methods largely unnecessary ___(12)___ most commercial purposes. ___(13)___, some sailing schools ___(14)___ insist on teaching celestial navigation, arguing ___(15)___ understanding these traditional methods deepens a sailor's overall comprehension ___(16)___ the sea and sky. ___(17)___ modern technology fails, as it occasionally does, sailors ___(18)___ this older knowledge could still find their way safely to shore. This possibility, however remote, ___(19)___ why some instructors ___(20)___ these skills should never be entirely forgotten.

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