History of India and the Freedom Struggle

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Part A: Ancient India

Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300-1300 BCE)

Also called Harappan Civilisation. Bronze Age civilisation along the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers.
Major sites: Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan — discovered 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni), Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan — discovered 1922 by R.D. Banerji, means "Mound of the Dead"), Lothal (Gujarat — dockyard), Dholavira (Gujarat — water conservation system), Kalibangan (Rajasthan — ploughed field evidence), Rakhigarhi (Haryana — one of the largest sites), Chanhudaro (Sindh — bead making, no citadel).
Features: town planning (grid pattern), Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro), granaries, drainage systems, seals with animal motifs (unicorn most common), undeciphered script (written right to left), worship of Mother Goddess and Pashupati (proto-Shiva).
Main occupation: agriculture and trade; traded with Mesopotamia.
Decline theories: climate change, river shifting, Aryan invasion (debated), floods.

Vedic Period (c. 1500-600 BCE)

Early Vedic (Rigvedic) Period: Rigveda composed, pastoral society, Sapta Sindhu region, tribal chief called Rajan, assemblies — Sabha and Samiti.
Later Vedic Period: Three other Vedas composed (Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda), rise of agriculture, iron use, varna system solidifies, Later Vedic literature includes Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.
Four Vedas: Rigveda (oldest, hymns), Samaveda (music), Yajurveda (rituals), Atharvaveda (spells/magic).

Jainism and Buddhism (6th century BCE)

Jainism: Founded/reformed by Mahavira (24th Tirthankara; 1st was Rishabhanatha). Core principles: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha, Brahmacharya (Panch Mahavrata). Split into Svetambara and Digambara sects.
Buddhism: Founded by Gautama Buddha (born Siddhartha, Lumbini, c. 563 BCE). Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Middle Path. Four Buddhist Councils held; Councils were sponsored by Ajatashatru, Kalashoka, Ashoka, and Kanishka respectively. Major Buddhist texts in Pali (Tripitaka: Sutta, Vinaya, Abhidhamma Pitaka).

Mauryan Empire (321-185 BCE)

Founded by Chandragupta Maurya with help of Chanakya (Kautilya), author of Arthashastra. Defeated Seleucus Nicator.
Bindusara succeeded him.
Ashoka the Great (269-232 BCE): Kalinga War (261 BCE) led to his conversion to Buddhism; propagated Dhamma; erected edicts and pillars (Lion Capital at Sarnath is India's National Emblem); sent missionaries abroad including his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
Administration described by Megasthenes (Greek ambassador) in Indica.

Gupta Empire (c. 320-550 CE) — "Golden Age of India"

Founded by Sri Gupta; Chandragupta I founder of the empire proper; Samudragupta (great conqueror, called "Napoleon of India," Allahabad Prashasti by Harishena); Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) — peak of the empire, defeated the Shakas, patron of the "Navratnas" including Kalidasa.
Achievements: Aryabhata (astronomy, zero concept, Aryabhatiya), Kalidasa (Sanskrit literature — Abhijnanashakuntalam), Nalanda University flourished, decimal system, extensive trade.
Chinese traveller Fa-Hien visited during Chandragupta II's reign.

Post-Gupta and Regional Kingdoms

Harshavardhana (606-647 CE) — Kannauj, patron of Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang), wrote Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika.
Pallavas, Chalukyas, Cholas, Pandyas in South India. Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I — naval power, Chola temple architecture (Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur).
Chola administration: local self-government, village assemblies (Ur, Sabha).

Part B: Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)

Five dynasties in sequence:

Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty (1206-1290) — Qutb-ud-din Aibak (founder, built Qutub Minar's base), Iltutmish, Razia Sultana (only woman ruler of Delhi Sultanate), Balban.
Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320) — Alauddin Khilji (market reforms, defeated Mongols, conquered Deccan via Malik Kafur).
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414) — Muhammad bin Tughlaq (transferred capital to Daulatabad, token currency experiment), Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451).
Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526) — Ibrahim Lodi defeated by Babur at First Battle of Panipat (1526).

Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646)

Founded by Harihara and Bukka. Capital Hampi. Peak under Krishnadevaraya (Tuluva dynasty), patron of arts, defeated by Deccan Sultanates at Battle of Talikota (1565).

Bhakti and Sufi Movements

Bhakti saints: Kabir, Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism), Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Mirabai, Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Ramanuja, Basava.
Sufi orders: Chishti (Moinuddin Chishti, Ajmer), Suhrawardi.

Mughal Empire (1526-1857)

Babur (1526-1530): Founder, won Battle of Panipat I (1526) vs Ibrahim Lodi, Battle of Khanwa (1527) vs Rana Sanga.
Humayun (1530-1556): Lost to Sher Shah Suri, regained throne with Persian help.
Sher Shah Suri (interregnum, Suri dynasty): built Grand Trunk Road, introduced Rupiya currency, efficient administration.
Akbar (1556-1605): Battle of Panipat II (1556) vs Hemu; Din-i-Ilahi; Land revenue system (Zabt/Todar Mal's Bandobast); Navratnas (Birbal, Tansen, Todar Mal, etc.); religious tolerance, abolished jizya.
Jahangir (1605-1627): Nur Jahan's influence; met Sir Thomas Roe (English ambassador).
Shah Jahan (1627-1658): Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Peacock Throne; "Golden Age" of Mughal architecture.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707): Empire's largest extent but overextension; reimposed jizya; Deccan wars.
Decline after Aurangzeb: weak successors, Nadir Shah's invasion (1739, took Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor), rise of regional powers (Marathas, Sikhs, Nawabs of Bengal/Awadh/Hyderabad).

Maratha Empire

Shivaji Maharaj (founder, coronated 1674, Ashtapradhan council of ministers, guerrilla "Ganimi Kava" warfare).
Peshwa era: Baji Rao I expanded Maratha power; Third Battle of Panipat (1761) — Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali, major setback.

Part C: Modern India — European Arrival & British Rule

Arrival of Europeans

Portuguese: Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut, 1498. First European power in India; Goa, Daman, Diu their strongholds.
Dutch, British, French, Danish followed via East India Companies.
British East India Company established 1600; first factory at Surat (1613).
French East India Company: Pondicherry base; Anglo-French rivalry (Carnatic Wars) ended in British dominance under Robert Clive.

Key Battles Establishing British Power

Battle of Plassey (1757): Robert Clive defeats Siraj-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Bengal) with help of Mir Jafar's betrayal — foundation of British political power in India.
Battle of Buxar (1764): British defeat combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah (Awadh), and Shah Alam II (Mughal emperor) — confirmed British supremacy; led to Diwani rights (revenue collection) over Bengal, Bihar, Odisha (Treaty of Allahabad, 1765).

Revolt of 1857 (First War of Independence)

Immediate cause: greased cartridges (Enfield rifle) offending religious sentiments of sepoys.
Started at Meerut, 10 May 1857, spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly.
Key leaders: Mangal Pandey (Barrackpore, precursor incident), Bahadur Shah Zafar (symbolic leader, Delhi), Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Tantia Tope (Kanpur), Nana Sahib (Kanpur), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow), Kunwar Singh (Bihar).
Result: Suppressed by 1858; British Crown took direct control (Government of India Act 1858), East India Company dissolved; Queen's Proclamation 1858.

Formation of Indian National Congress

Founded 1885 by Allan Octavian Hume (retired British civil servant); first session in Bombay, presided by W.C. Bonnerjee.
Moderate Phase (1885-1905): Dadabhai Naoroji (Drain of Wealth theory), Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta — believed in constitutional methods.
Extremist Phase (1905-1917): Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal) — advocated Swaraj, Swadeshi, boycott.
Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon triggered the Swadeshi Movement; annulled in 1911.
Surat Split (1907): Congress split into Moderates and Extremists.
Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress-Muslim League unity; also year of Home Rule Movement (Annie Besant, Tilak).

Gandhian Era (1915-1947)

Gandhi returned from South Africa in 1915.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917): first Gandhian movement in India, indigo farmers, Bihar.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Gujarat, peasants' tax relief.
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): labour rights.
Rowlatt Act (1919): "black act," led to Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919, Amritsar, General Dyer).
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922): launched after Jallianwala Bagh and Khilafat Movement alliance; called off after Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 1922).
Simon Commission (1927): all-British commission, boycotted ("Simon Go Back"), Lala Lajpat Rai injured in lathi charge, later died.
Purna Swaraj Declaration: 1929 Lahore Session (Jawaharlal Nehru as president); 26 January 1930 celebrated as first Independence Day/Purna Swaraj Day.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934): Started with Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha), 12 March-6 April 1930, from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (Gujarat coast), 240 miles.
Round Table Conferences (1930, 1931, 1932) in London; Gandhi attended only the second (1931), after Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931).
Poona Pact (1932): Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar, on separate electorates for depressed classes.
Government of India Act 1935: provincial autonomy, basis for later Constitution.
Quit India Movement (1942): "Do or Die" call, launched after failure of Cripps Mission; major leaders arrested immediately.
Cripps Mission (1942): failed to satisfy Indian demands.
Indian National Army (INA/Azad Hind Fauj): Founded by Rash Behari Bose, later led by Subhas Chandra Bose ("Netaji"); slogan "Jai Hind," "Give me blood, I will give you freedom."
Cabinet Mission Plan (1946).
Mountbatten Plan (1947) led to Indian Independence Act 1947 — Partition of India into India and Pakistan.
Independence: 15 August 1947. First Prime Minister: Jawaharlal Nehru. First Governor-General of independent India: Lord Mountbatten (later C. Rajagopalachari, first Indian Governor-General).

Important Personalities of the Freedom Struggle (quick reference)

Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev: executed 23 March 1931 ("Shaheed Diwas"), Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.
Chandrashekhar Azad: HSRA, died at Alfred Park, Allahabad.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: "Iron Man of India," integrated princely states, first Deputy PM & Home Minister.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, "Father of the Indian Constitution."
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: first Education Minister.
Rajendra Prasad: first President of India, President of Constituent Assembly.
Sarojini Naidu: "Nightingale of India," first woman Governor (UP) and first woman President of INC (1925).

Integration of Princely States

Led by Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon.
Hyderabad: annexed via "Operation Polo" (1948).
Junagadh: merged via plebiscite.
Jammu & Kashmir: acceded via Instrument of Accession (Maharaja Hari Singh, October 1947) amid Pakistani invasion.
Goa: liberated 1961 ("Operation Vijay"), was Portuguese territory until then.
Puducherry: French territory, merged 1954/1962 (de jure).
Sikkim: became 22nd state of India in 1975 via referendum.

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