English for Teachers: Language Content · Chapter 6

Chapter 6: Clauses, Sentence Structure and Types, Linkers, Order of Adjectives and Common Errors

What to remember

A clause has a subject and a finite verb. An independent (main) clause can stand alone; a dependent (subordinate) clause cannot.
Sentences are classified by structure (simple, compound, complex, compound-complex) and by purpose (assertive, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory).
Linkers join ideas, adjectives follow a fixed order, and most common errors come from agreement, article, preposition, tense and word-choice mistakes.

1. Phrases and Clauses

A phrase is a group of words without a subject and finite verb: "in the garden", "to read books", "running fast". A clause has both a subject and a finite verb: "she sings".

Clause	Job	Example
Independent (main)	Gives complete sense	She stayed at home.
Noun clause	Works as a noun (subject, object, complement)	I know that she is honest.
Adjective (relative) clause	Describes a noun	The girl who sings is my sister.
Adverb clause	Works as an adverb	He left because he was ill.

Noun clause. It begins with that, what, who, whether, if, why, how, where. "What he said is true." "I wonder whether she will come."

Adjective clause. It begins with who, whom, whose, which, that. Defining clauses give needed information and take no commas. Non-defining clauses add extra information and are set off by commas: "My uncle, who lives in Guntur, is a doctor."

Adverb clauses are named by meaning:

Kind	Linkers	Example
Time	when, while, before, after, since, until, as soon as	Wait until I come.
Place	where, wherever	Sit where you like.
Reason	because, since, as	He failed because he did not study.
Purpose	so that, in order that, lest	Study hard so that you may pass.
Result	so ... that, such ... that	He was so tired that he fell asleep.
Condition	if, unless, provided that	If you hurry, you will catch the bus.
Concession	although, though, even though, while	Although it rained, we went out.
Comparison	than, as ... as	She is wiser than her brother.
Manner	as, as if, as though	He behaved as if he knew everything.

"Lest" means "so that ... not" and takes "should": "Work hard lest you should fail."
After "as if" an unreal comparison takes the past: "He talks as if he were a king."
"Such" goes with a noun: "such a good boy"; "so" goes with an adjective or adverb: "so good".

2. Sentence Structure

Type	Structure	Example
Simple	One independent clause	The sun rises in the east.
Compound	Two or more independent clauses joined by and, but, or, so, yet	She sang and he danced.
Complex	One independent clause + one or more dependent clauses	I stayed at home because it was raining.
Compound-complex	Two or more independent clauses + at least one dependent clause	She sang, and he danced while the guests clapped.

Coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) join equal clauses.
Subordinating conjunctions (because, although, if, when, while, unless, that) join a dependent clause to a main clause.
A simple sentence can have a compound subject or compound verb and is still simple: "Rama and Sita sing and dance."

Sentence types by purpose

Assertive (statement): "She reads daily."
Interrogative (question): "Does she read daily?"
Imperative (command, request, advice): "Read daily."
Exclamatory (strong feeling): "What a lovely day!"
Optative (wish or prayer): "May you succeed."

Sentence elements. The basic parts are subject (S), verb (V), object (O), complement (C) and adverbial (A). Common patterns:

S + V: "Birds fly."
S + V + O: "She reads books."
S + V + C: "He is a teacher."
S + V + O + O: "She gave me a pen."
S + V + O + C: "They elected him leader."

3. Linkers (Discourse Markers)

Linkers join sentences and ideas so that writing flows.

Function	Linkers
Addition	and, also, moreover, furthermore, in addition, besides
Contrast	but, however, yet, nevertheless, on the other hand, whereas
Cause and reason	because, since, as, for
Result	so, therefore, thus, hence, as a result, consequently
Condition	if, unless, otherwise, provided that
Time and sequence	first, then, next, after that, finally, meanwhile
Example	for example, for instance, such as
Summary	in short, in conclusion, to sum up
Concession	although, though, even though, in spite of, despite

"Although" and "though" are followed by a clause: "Although she was tired, she worked."
"In spite of" and "despite" are followed by a noun or -ing form: "In spite of the rain, we went." "Despite" is never followed by "of".
Do not use "although" and "but" together in one sentence.
"However" is a linking adverb and is usually set off with commas or a semicolon before it.
"Otherwise" means "if not": "Run, otherwise you will miss the train."

4. Order of Adjectives

When several adjectives come before a noun, they follow a general order. A memory aid: OSASCOMP.

Order	Kind	Example
1	Opinion	lovely, ugly, nice
2	Size	big, small, tall
3	Age	old, new, young
4	Shape	round, square
5	Colour	red, blue, white
6	Origin	Indian, Telugu, French
7	Material	wooden, silk, iron
8	Purpose	sleeping (bag), writing (desk)

Examples: "a lovely small old round red Indian wooden table" is the full form; usually only two or three adjectives are used: "a beautiful old house", "a small round table", "a big red apple".

Number words come before descriptive adjectives: "the first two chapters", "three tall boys".
Determiners (a, the, my, this) always come first.
Commas are used between adjectives of the same class; they are not used between different classes.
When an adjective is made from a noun (as in "a cotton shirt"), it stays closest to the noun.

5. Common Errors

Articles

"A" before consonant sounds; "an" before vowel sounds: "an hour", "an honest man", "a university", "a European".
"The" is used with unique things (the sun, the Ganga), superlatives, and musical instruments (play the guitar). It is not used with names of games (play cricket) or meals (have breakfast).

Prepositions

"Discuss about" is wrong; use "discuss".
"Married to", "angry with a person", "angry at a thing", "good at", "interested in", "afraid of", "capable of", "different from", "full of", "fond of", "proud of".
"At" with a small place or exact time; "in" with a large place or a month/year; "on" with a day or date.
"Between" is for two; "among" is for more than two.
"Since" and "for" are used as explained in the tenses chapter.
"Reach" takes no preposition: "reach Hyderabad".

Pronouns

"Between you and me" (not "between you and I").
"Each other" is for two; "one another" for more than two.
Reflexive pronouns are used for the same person: "She hurt herself."
"Who" is subject and "whom" is object.
Possessive "its" has no apostrophe; "it's" means "it is".

Words often confused: affect/effect, accept/except, principal/principle, stationary/stationery, lose/loose, advice/advise, born/borne, quiet/quite.

Other common mistakes

"Many a" takes a singular noun and verb: "Many a student has failed."
"One of the best" takes a plural noun: "one of the best boys".
"Much" with uncountable nouns; "many" with countable nouns. "Less" with uncountable; "fewer" with countable.
"Hardly" and "scarcely" are negative; do not add "not": "He could hardly walk" (not "could not hardly").
Double negatives are wrong: "I don't know nothing" should be "I know nothing."
Misplaced modifier: "Walking down the road, a dog bit me" is wrong; use "While I was walking down the road, a dog bit me."
Words like "furniture", "luggage", "information", "advice", "knowledge", "equipment" and "scenery" are uncountable and have no plural: "two pieces of furniture".

Classroom angle. Error-spotting activities, where learners find and correct mistakes in a short text, develop editing skills. Use colour coding for clause types to make structure visible.

Exam traps

1. "Despite of" is wrong; use "despite" or "in spite of".
2. "Although ... but" in one sentence is wrong.
3. "Discuss about", "reach to" and "enter into the room" contain extra prepositions.
4. "A university" and "an hour" follow sound, not spelling.
5. "Between" is for two, "among" for more than two.
6. "Fewer" goes with countable nouns and "less" with uncountable nouns.
7. "Furnitures", "informations" and "advices" are wrong plurals.
8. "Could not hardly" is a double negative.

One-liners

1. A clause has a subject and a finite verb.
2. A noun clause works as a noun.
3. A non-defining relative clause is set off by commas.
4. "Lest" is followed by "should".
5. A complex sentence has one main clause and at least one subordinate clause.
6. "But", "and" and "or" are coordinating conjunctions.
7. "However" shows contrast.
8. "Therefore" and "consequently" show result.
9. In the adjective order, opinion comes before size.
10. In the adjective order, material comes after origin and before purpose.
11. "Between you and me" is correct.
12. "Information" is uncountable.

Practice questions

In 'I know that she is honest', the underlined clause 'that she is honest' is a:
1. Noun clause
2. Adjective clause
3. Main clause
4. Adverb clause
Answer
A. Noun clause
It works as the object of the verb 'know'.
In 'Although it rained, we went out', the clause 'Although it rained' shows:
1. Reason
2. Concession
3. Condition
4. Purpose
Answer
B. Concession
'Although' introduces a contrast with what is expected.
In 'He left because he was ill', the clause 'because he was ill' is an adverb clause of:
1. Time
2. Result
3. Manner
4. Reason
Answer
D. Reason
'Because' gives the cause of the action.
'She sang and he danced.' This is a:
1. Simple sentence
2. Compound sentence
3. Compound-complex sentence
4. Complex sentence
Answer
B. Compound sentence
Two independent clauses are joined by 'and'.
In 'The girl who sings is my sister', 'who sings' is a(n):
1. Adverb clause
2. Independent clause
3. Noun clause
4. Adjective clause
Answer
D. Adjective clause
It describes the noun 'girl'.
Work hard lest you ___ fail.
1. should
2. will
3. would
4. can
Answer
A. should
'Lest' means 'so that ... not' and takes 'should'.
Choose the correct sentence.
1. In spite the rain, we went out.
2. Despite of the rain, we went out.
3. In spite of the rain, we went out.
4. Despite the rain, but we went out.
Answer
C. In spite of the rain, we went out.
'In spite of' is correct; 'despite' is never followed by 'of'.
Choose the correct order of adjectives.
1. a round small red ball
2. a small red round ball
3. a small round red ball
4. a red round small ball
Answer
C. a small round red ball
The order is size, shape, colour.
There are ___ students today than yesterday.
1. little
2. fewer
3. lesser
4. less
Answer
B. fewer
'Fewer' goes with countable nouns such as students.
Which linker shows result?
1. However
2. Whereas
3. Although
4. Therefore
Answer
D. Therefore
'Therefore' introduces a result; the others show contrast.
Which linker shows contrast?
1. However
2. Consequently
3. Therefore
4. Moreover
Answer
A. However
'However' shows an opposite idea.
'Please sit down.' This sentence is:
1. Exclamatory
2. Assertive
3. Imperative
4. Interrogative
Answer
C. Imperative
A request or command is an imperative sentence.
'What a lovely day!' This sentence is:
1. Imperative
2. Exclamatory
3. Assertive
4. Optative
Answer
B. Exclamatory
It expresses strong feeling.
'I stayed at home because it was raining.' This sentence is:
1. Complex
2. Simple
3. Compound
4. Compound-complex
Answer
A. Complex
It has one main clause and one dependent clause.
'She sang, and he danced while the guests clapped.' This sentence is:
1. Compound
2. Simple
3. Complex
4. Compound-complex
Answer
D. Compound-complex
It has two independent clauses and one dependent clause.
The pattern of 'She gave me a pen' is:
1. S + V
2. S + V + C
3. S + V + O + C
4. S + V + O + O
Answer
D. S + V + O + O
'Me' is the indirect object and 'pen' the direct object.
Which of these is a coordinating conjunction?
1. Although
2. But
3. Unless
4. Because
Answer
B. But
The others are subordinating conjunctions.
She is good ___ English.
1. with
2. in
3. at
4. on
Answer
C. at
'Good at' is the fixed pattern.
He is angry ___ his friend.
1. with
2. from
3. at
4. on
Answer
A. with
'Angry with' is used for a person.
The sweets were shared ___ the three boys.
1. within
2. across
3. among
4. between
Answer
C. among
'Among' is used for more than two.
Many a student ___ failed.
1. has
2. are
3. have
4. were
Answer
A. has
'Many a' takes a singular noun and verb.
The two sisters love ___.
1. themselves each
2. each other
3. other each
4. one another
Answer
B. each other
'Each other' is used for two persons.
Run fast, ___ you will miss the train.
1. therefore
2. besides
3. moreover
4. otherwise
Answer
D. otherwise
'Otherwise' means 'if not'.
Which linker joins a clause of purpose?
1. Whereas
2. Even though
3. So that
4. As soon as
Answer
C. So that
'So that' shows purpose.
He talks as if he ___ a king.
1. were
2. will be
3. was being
4. is
Answer
A. were
An unreal comparison after 'as if' takes the past, with 'were'.
He is ___ honest man.
1. a
2. an
3. the
4. no article
Answer
B. an
'Honest' begins with a vowel sound because the 'h' is silent.
Which sentence is punctuated correctly?
1. My uncle who lives in Guntur, is a doctor.
2. My uncle, who lives in Guntur is a doctor.
3. My uncle who, lives in Guntur is a doctor.
4. My uncle, who lives in Guntur, is a doctor.
Answer
D. My uncle, who lives in Guntur, is a doctor.
A non-defining clause is set off by commas on both sides.
In the usual order of adjectives, which kind comes first?
1. Origin
2. Material
3. Colour
4. Opinion
Answer
D. Opinion
The order starts with opinion, then size, age, shape, colour, origin, material, purpose.
She is ___ a good singer.
1. such
2. too
3. so
4. very
Answer
A. such
'Such' goes before 'a + adjective + noun'.
Consider the statements. 1. A clause has a subject and a finite verb. 2. A phrase has a finite verb.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
A phrase has no finite verb; only statement 1 is correct.
Consider the statements. 1. 'Despite of' is correct. 2. 'In spite of' is followed by a noun or -ing form.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
'Despite' never takes 'of'; only statement 2 is correct.
Consider the statements. 1. 'Although' and 'but' are used together in one sentence. 2. 'Though' is followed by a clause.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Using both 'although' and 'but' is an error; only statement 2 is correct.
Consider the statements. 1. 'Less' is used with uncountable nouns. 2. 'Fewer' is used with countable nouns.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both rules are standard.
Consider the statements. 1. Coordinating conjunctions join equal clauses. 2. Subordinating conjunctions join a dependent clause to a main clause.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both statements are correct.
Consider the statements. 1. 'Information' is a countable noun. 2. 'Furniture' has the plural 'furnitures'.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Both are uncountable and have no plural form.
Consider the statements. 1. A defining relative clause is set off by commas. 2. A non-defining relative clause gives extra information.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Defining clauses take no commas; only statement 2 is correct.
Consider the statements. 1. 'Between' is used for two persons or things. 2. 'Among' is used for more than two.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both statements are correct.
Consider the statements. 1. 'Many a' takes a singular verb. 2. 'Each other' is used for more than two persons.
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
'Each other' is for two; only statement 1 is correct.
Match the adverb clauses with their linkers. 1. Time - a. until 2. Concession - b. although
1. 1-a, 2-a
2. 1-b, 2-b
3. 1-b, 2-a
4. 1-a, 2-b
Answer
D. 1-a, 2-b
'Until' shows time and 'although' shows concession.
She hurt ___ while cooking.
1. herself
2. her
3. she
4. hers
Answer
A. herself
A reflexive pronoun is used when the doer and receiver are the same person.

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1.Fill in the blank with the correct form: It was _____ day of the year.
2.Fill in the blank with the correct form: This is _____ film I have seen this year.
3.Choose the correct form to fill the blank: She is _____ singer in the group.
4.Fill in the blank with the correct form: He is junior _____ me by two years.
5.Fill in the blank with the correct form: She sings _____ than her sister.
6.Select the grammatically correct option: She is senior _____ me in the department.
7.Fill in the blank with the correct form: This is _____ film I have seen this year.
8.Fill in the blank with the correct form: He is _____ than I expected.
9.Choose the correct form to fill the blank: This is _____ mistake anyone could make.
10.Choose the correct form to fill the blank: She is senior _____ me in the department.

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