Chapter 7: Language Functions, Punctuation and Capitalisation

What to remember

• A language function is what a speaker does with words (greeting, requesting, apologising, advising, and so on). The form changes with the person, the place and the level of politeness.
• Punctuation marks show pauses, stops, questions, possession and quotation. Wrong or missing marks can change the meaning.
• Capital letters have fixed uses: the first word of a sentence, the pronoun "I", names and titles.

1. Language Functions

A language function is the purpose of an utterance. English teachers must know common expressions for each function and the formal/informal difference. Formal language is used with elders, officers and strangers; informal language is used with friends and family.

Useful points

• "Would you mind" is followed by an -ing form: "Would you mind opening the door?" The polite answer to "Would you mind...?" is "Not at all" (meaning "I do not mind").
• "May" is more formal than "can" for permission. "Could" is more polite than "can" for requests.
• "Shall I...?" is used for offers; "Shall we...?" is used for suggestions.
• "Would like" is more polite than "want".
• "How do you do?" is a formal greeting and its answer is "How do you do?"
• "Excuse me" is used to attract attention or to pass; "sorry" is used to apologise.
• "Pardon?" or "Could you repeat that?" is used when something is not understood.
• Tone, stress and body language add to meaning.
• Telephone language: "May I speak to...?" "Speaking." "Hold on, please." "I will call you back." "Can I take a message?"

Classroom angle. Language functions are best taught through role-play, pair work and situation cards in which learners choose the correct expression for the person and place.

2. Punctuation

Comma rules in detail

• Between three or more items: "Apples, bananas and mangoes are fruits."
• After an introductory word or phrase: "However, she did not agree." "After the class, we went home."
• Before a conjunction that joins two independent clauses: "She was tired, but she kept working."
• Around a name used to address someone: "Ravi, please come here."
• Around words in apposition: "Mr Rao, the principal, is here."
• Not between a subject and its verb; not before "that" in a noun clause.
• A comma alone cannot join two independent clauses (comma splice): "She was ill, she stayed at home" is wrong; use a full stop, semicolon or conjunction.

Apostrophe rules

• Singular noun: add 's: "the girl's bag".
• Plural noun ending in s: add only the apostrophe: "the girls' bags".
• Irregular plurals: add 's: "children's books", "men's room".
• Joint ownership: "Rama and Sita's house" (one house). Separate ownership: "Rama's and Sita's houses".
• Contractions: "do not - don't", "will not - won't", "cannot - can't", "it is - it's", "I am - I'm".
• Never use an apostrophe for a plural noun: "two books", not "two book's".
• "Its" (possessive) has no apostrophe; "it's" means "it is" or "it has".
• Possessive pronouns (yours, hers, ours, theirs) have no apostrophe.

Direct speech punctuation

• The spoken words are in quotation marks; the first word inside starts with a capital letter.
• A comma separates the reporting clause and the spoken words: She said, "I will come."
• Punctuation marks like the full stop, comma, question mark and exclamation mark of the spoken words go inside the closing quotation mark.
• A new speaker starts a new line.

3. Capitalisation

Use a capital letter for:

• the first word of a sentence;
• the pronoun "I";
• the first word of a line of poetry;
• the first word of a direct quotation that is a full sentence;
• proper nouns: names of people, places, rivers, mountains, countries, languages, nationalities, religions, days, months, festivals (Rama, Hyderabad, Krishna river, Telugu, Monday, Ugadi);
• titles used with a name: Dr Rao, Professor Rao, Captain Singh; not when used alone as a common noun: "the doctor", "my uncle";
• important words in the title of a book, film or song: "The Story of My Life";
• names of the Supreme Being and holy books;
• abbreviations and acronyms: UN, AP, NASA;
• the first letter of "Mr", "Mrs", "Dr" and similar abbreviations.

Do not use a capital letter for:

• the seasons (summer, winter, spring) or compass directions as ordinary words ("go north");
• names of school subjects, unless they are languages ("mathematics" but "English");
• family words like "mother" and "uncle" used with "my" ("my mother"), but "Mother" is capital when used as a name ("Mother, come here");
• the word after a colon, unless it begins a full sentence or a proper noun;
• the middle of a sentence unless it is a proper noun.

Exam traps

• 1. "Shall I...?" is for offers and "Shall we...?" is for suggestions.
• 2. "Would you mind opening" takes an -ing form, and "Not at all" means you agree to do it.
• 3. "Its" and "it's" are different words.
• 4. The apostrophe is used for possession and contraction, not for plurals.
• 5. "The girls' bags" and "the girl's bags" are different in meaning.
• 6. A comma cannot join two complete sentences.
• 7. The names of seasons and subjects (except languages) do not take capitals.
• 8. "Mother" is capital as a name but small in "my mother".

One-liners

• 1. A language function is the purpose behind an utterance.
• 2. "Could" is more polite than "can" in a request.
• 3. "May I come in?" asks for permission.
• 4. "I am sorry to hear that" expresses sympathy.
• 5. The semicolon joins two related independent clauses.
• 6. The colon introduces a list.
• 7. The apostrophe shows possession and contraction.
• 8. A hyphen joins parts of a compound word.
• 9. The pronoun "I" is always capital.
• 10. Days and months begin with capital letters.
• 11. Names of languages begin with capital letters.
• 12. The first word of a sentence begins with a capital letter.

Practice questions

1. Which expression asks for permission formally?

   1. Would you like to come in?
   2. Let me come in now.
   3. Come in.
   4. May I come in?
   Answer

   D. May I come in?

   'May I...?' is the formal way of asking permission.

2. Which is a polite request?

   1. You will lend me a pen.
   2. Could you lend me a pen?
   3. Give me a pen.
   4. Lend me your pen now.
   Answer

   B. Could you lend me a pen?

   'Could you...?' is a polite request form.

3. The usual formal reply to 'Thank you very much' is:

   1. I am sorry.
   2. Thank you too.
   3. You are welcome.
   4. Never mind.
   Answer

   C. You are welcome.

   'You are welcome' responds to thanks.

4. ___ I help you with the bag?

   1. Would
   2. Will
   3. Shall
   4. Do
   Answer

   C. Shall

   'Shall I...?' is used to make an offer.

5. Which expression gives a suggestion?

   1. Would you mind the walk?
   2. Let us go for a walk.
   3. I am sorry for the walk.
   4. May I walk?
   Answer

   B. Let us go for a walk.

   'Let us...' suggests an activity to share.

6. 'Would you mind opening the window?' Which reply means the speaker agrees?

   1. No, thanks.
   2. Yes, I mind.
   3. Certainly, I mind.
   4. Not at all.
   Answer

   D. Not at all.

   'Not at all' means 'I do not mind'.

7. Which expression shows sympathy?

   1. I am sorry to hear that.
   2. Please come in.
   3. Well done!
   4. I quite agree.
   Answer

   A. I am sorry to hear that.

   It is used when someone shares bad news.

8. The semicolon is used to:

   1. join two closely related independent clauses
   2. end a question
   3. show possession
   4. introduce direct speech
   Answer

   A. join two closely related independent clauses

   A semicolon links related main clauses.

9. 'The girls' bags' means the bags belong to:

   1. one girl
   2. no girl
   3. a girl's friend only
   4. more than one girl
   Answer

   D. more than one girl

   A plural noun ending in s takes only the apostrophe.

10. Choose the correct sentence.

    1. Its' raining, so take an umbrella.
    2. It's raining, so take an umbrella.
    3. It's' raining, so take an umbrella.
    4. Its raining, so take an umbrella.
    Answer

    B. It's raining, so take an umbrella.

    'It's' is the contraction of 'it is'.

11. You need three things ___ pen, paper and ink. Choose the correct mark.

    1. ?
    2. ;
    3. :
    4. '
    Answer

    C. :

    A colon introduces a list.

12. Which of these is written with a small initial letter in a sentence?

    1. Hyderabad
    2. summer
    3. Monday
    4. Ganga
    Answer

    B. summer

    Seasons are common nouns; days and names are proper nouns.

13. 'Rama and Sita's house' means:

    1. two houses
    2. Sita's house only
    3. one house owned by both
    4. Rama's house only
    Answer

    C. one house owned by both

    The apostrophe after the last name shows joint ownership.

14. Where are you going___ Choose the correct mark.

    1. ?
    2. .
    3. ,
    4. !
    Answer

    A. ?

    A direct question ends with a question mark.

15. On the phone, someone asks, 'May I speak to Mr Rao?' Mr Rao replies:

    1. Excuse.
    2. Pardon me.
    3. Welcome.
    4. Speaking.
    Answer

    D. Speaking.

    'Speaking' means 'this is he'.

16. The usual reply to 'I am sorry' is:

    1. Good morning.
    2. Congratulations.
    3. That's all right.
    4. See you soon.
    Answer

    C. That's all right.

    It accepts an apology.

17. The reply to the greeting 'How do you do?' is:

    1. I am fine, thank you very much.
    2. How do you do?
    3. Pleased to say.
    4. Good night.
    Answer

    B. How do you do?

    It is a formal greeting that is repeated as the answer.

18. Choose the correctly punctuated sentence.

    1. He said, "I am ready."
    2. He said, "i am ready".
    3. He said "I am ready".
    4. He said: I am ready.
    Answer

    A. He said, "I am ready."

    A comma precedes the quotation and its first word is capitalised.

19. The ellipsis (...) shows:

    1. a list
    2. possession
    3. a question
    4. words left out or a pause
    Answer

    D. words left out or a pause

    Three dots mark an omission or a pause.

20. Which word needs a hyphen?

    1. hand-bag
    2. book-shelf
    3. school-yard
    4. mother-in-law
    Answer

    D. mother-in-law

    Compound relatives such as mother-in-law are hyphenated.

21. The book is ___.

    1. her's
    2. her
    3. hers
    4. hers'
    Answer

    C. hers

    Possessive pronouns take no apostrophe.

22. Choose the correct form.

    1. children's books
    2. children' books
    3. childrens' books
    4. childrens books
    Answer

    A. children's books

    Irregular plurals add 's.

23. Would you like some tea? The polite way to refuse is:

    1. No way.
    2. No, thank you.
    3. Give it.
    4. Not me.
    Answer

    B. No, thank you.

    'No, thank you' politely declines an offer.

24. 'Mind the step!' expresses:

    1. a request
    2. an apology
    3. a greeting
    4. a warning
    Answer

    D. a warning

    It warns of a possible danger.

25. Would you mind ___ the door?

    1. closed
    2. to close
    3. closing
    4. close
    Answer

    C. closing

    'Would you mind' takes an -ing form.

26. Brackets are used to enclose:

    1. extra information
    2. greetings
    3. direct speech
    4. questions
    Answer

    A. extra information

    Brackets set off additional information.

27. Which request is the most polite?

    1. Help me.
    2. Would you please help me?
    3. You help me.
    4. Can you help me?
    Answer

    B. Would you please help me?

    'Would you please' is the most polite request pattern.

28. 'Go straight and turn left at the signal.' This sentence performs the function of:

    1. warning
    2. giving directions
    3. apologising
    4. inviting
    Answer

    B. giving directions

    It tells someone how to reach a place.

29. Consider the statements. 1. 'May' is more formal than 'can' for permission. 2. 'Can' is more polite than 'could' in requests.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    'Could' is more polite than 'can'; only statement 1 is correct.

30. Consider the statements. 1. 'Shall I...?' is used for offers. 2. 'Shall we...?' is used for suggestions.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are standard uses.

31. Consider the statements. 1. A comma can join two independent clauses on its own. 2. A semicolon can join two closely related independent clauses.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    A comma alone makes a comma splice; only statement 2 is correct.

32. Consider the statements. 1. The possessive 'its' has an apostrophe. 2. 'It's' means 'it is'.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Possessive 'its' has no apostrophe; only statement 2 is correct.

33. Consider the statements. 1. The apostrophe is used to show possession. 2. The apostrophe is used to form plural nouns.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Plurals take no apostrophe; only statement 1 is correct.

34. Consider the statements. 1. The first word of a full-sentence quotation begins with a capital letter. 2. Names of seasons begin with capital letters.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Seasons are written in small letters; only statement 1 is correct.

35. Consider the statements. 1. The comma, full stop and question mark of spoken words go inside the closing quotation mark. 2. A new speaker starts a new line.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are standard rules of direct speech punctuation.

36. Consider the statements. 1. 'Mother' has a capital letter in 'Mother, come here.' 2. 'Mother' has a capital letter in 'my mother'.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    With 'my' the word is a common noun and takes a small letter; only statement 1 is correct.

37. Consider the statements. 1. Formal language is used with elders and officers. 2. Informal language is used with friends and family.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both statements are correct.

38. Consider the statements. 1. 'Would you mind' is followed by a base verb. 2. 'Would you mind' is followed by an -ing form.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The correct pattern is 'Would you mind opening...'.

39. Match the marks with their uses. 1. Colon - a. introduces a list 2. Hyphen - b. joins parts of a compound word

    1. 1-a, 2-a
    2. 1-b, 2-b
    3. 1-b, 2-a
    4. 1-a, 2-b
    Answer

    D. 1-a, 2-b

    The colon introduces a list and the hyphen joins parts of a compound word.

40. Consider the statements. 1. Names of seasons take capital letters. 2. Names of school subjects (other than languages) take capital letters.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    Both are written with small letters in general use.

41. Which mark can show a sudden break in a sentence?

    1. Colon
    2. Question mark
    3. Apostrophe
    4. Dash
    Answer

    D. Dash

    A dash marks a sudden break or extra information.

42. Which word is always written with a capital letter?

    1. it
    2. we
    3. I
    4. you
    Answer

    C. I

    The pronoun 'I' is always capital.