Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants and Botanical Names

What to remember

• Ethnobotany is the study of how people use plants for food, medicine, shelter, fibre and rituals. Tribal and village communities hold much of this knowledge.
• Every plant has a two-part Latin name (binomial nomenclature): Genus (capital) and species (small letter), written in italics. Carl Linnaeus introduced it.
• Many medicinal plants have a known active chemical, a plant part used and a family. Exams ask you to match plant, botanical name, part and use.

Basic ideas

Ethnobotany links botany with culture. Ethnomedicine is the use of plants as traditional medicine. Forest-dwelling communities, such as the tribes of the Eastern Ghats and the Nallamala region in Andhra Pradesh, use many forest plants for health and food. Forest officers must know these plants, because many are collected as Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) or minor forest produce, such as honey, gums, tamarind, soapnut and medicinal herbs.

Systems of traditional medicine in India: Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Homeopathy, together with Yoga and Naturopathy, come under AYUSH. Ayurveda uses many plant parts: root, bark, leaf, flower, fruit, seed and whole plant. Bioprospecting is the search for useful compounds in plants. Biopiracy is the unauthorised use of traditional knowledge or biological resources. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 regulates access to biological resources and sharing of benefits. The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) records traditional knowledge to prevent wrong patents. Patents on turmeric and neem were challenged in this context.

Binomial nomenclature

Rules: the genus name begins with a capital letter; the species name begins with a small letter; both are italicised or underlined separately when handwritten. The author's name may follow. The system was established by Linnaeus in his book *Species Plantarum* (1753). The rules for plants are in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants. Example: mango is *Mangifera indica*, where *Mangifera* is the genus.

Classification order: Kingdom, Phylum (Division in plants), Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. Plant family names end in "-aceae".

Important medicinal plants

Forest and tree species with botanical names

These are commonly asked in forest service exams.

Triphala is a mixture of three fruits: amla (*Phyllanthus emblica*), harad (*Terminalia chebula*) and baheda (*Terminalia bellirica*).

Forest products and chemicals from plants

Plant parts and what they give

• Roots: ashwagandha, sarpagandha, liquorice (*Glycyrrhiza glabra*).
• Stems and bark: cinchona, arjuna, cinnamon (*Cinnamomum verum*).
• Leaves: tulsi, neem, aloe, eucalyptus.
• Flowers: clove buds (*Syzygium aromaticum*), saffron (*Crocus sativus*) stigmas.
• Fruits and seeds: amla, black pepper, castor (*Ricinus communis*) for oil.
• Rhizomes: turmeric and ginger. A rhizome is an underground stem.

Conservation of medicinal plants

Overcollection and loss of forest cover threaten many medicinal species. Methods: sustainable harvesting, cultivation, community forest management, herbal gardens, gene banks and legal protection. Cultivation of medicinal plants gives farmers and forest-dwellers extra income. Do not state any species as currently endangered or protected without checking the latest official list.

Reading a botanical name correctly

A botanical name tells the genus and the species. Plants in the same genus are close relatives. For example, *Ficus benghalensis* (banyan) and *Ficus religiosa* (peepal) share the genus *Ficus*. *Piper nigrum* (black pepper) and *Piper longum* (long pepper) share the genus *Piper*. The same species name can appear in different genera, such as *indica* in *Mangifera indica* and *Azadirachta indica*, so you must learn the full name.

Many species names carry a clue. *indica* means from India. *officinalis* or *officinale* means medicinal or sold in shops. *grandis* means large. *religiosa* means sacred. *somnifera* means sleep-inducing. *longa* means long.

Uses of plant chemicals

• Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing chemicals that act on the body. Examples are quinine, morphine, reserpine, caffeine and nicotine.
• Essential oils give fragrance, for example eucalyptus oil, clove oil and sandalwood oil.
• Tannins are used for tanning leather and are found in babool bark and harad fruit.
• Gums, resins and latex are secreted by trees and are collected by tapping the bark. Rubber latex is collected from *Hevea brasiliensis*.
• Dyes: turmeric gives yellow; henna (*Lawsonia inermis*) gives a reddish-brown colour to hair and skin.

Role of forest staff

A forest beat officer should recognise common medicinal trees and herbs, prevent illegal collection of protected species, support tribal communities in sustainable collection of NTFP, and help to protect useful plants in reserved forests.

Exam traps

• 1. Neem is *Azadirachta indica*; the Latin word *indica* appears in many names, so match the genus.
• 2. Turmeric uses the rhizome, not the root.
• 3. Quinine comes from Cinchona bark; morphine from the opium poppy.
• 4. Tulsi is *Ocimum*; basil is the same genus.
• 5. Teak is *Tectona grandis*; Sal is *Shorea robusta*.
• 6. Red sanders is *Pterocarpus santalinus*; sandalwood is *Santalum album*.
• 7. Triphala has three fruits: amla, harad and baheda.
• 8. Lac is made by an insect, not by a plant.

One-liners

• 1. Linnaeus gave binomial nomenclature.
• 2. Genus is written with a capital letter.
• 3. Sarpagandha gives reserpine.
• 4. Periwinkle gives anticancer alkaloids.
• 5. Neem oil is a natural pesticide.
• 6. Amla is rich in vitamin C.
• 7. Aloe vera leaf gel is used for burns.
• 8. Red sanders is *Pterocarpus santalinus*.
• 9. Banyan is the national tree of India.
• 10. Giloy is *Tinospora cordifolia*.
• 11. Ashwagandha is *Withania somnifera*.
• 12. NTFP stands for Non-Timber Forest Produce.

Practice questions

1. The botanical name of neem is

   1. Curcuma longa
   2. Mangifera indica
   3. Ocimum sanctum
   4. Azadirachta indica
   Answer

   D. Azadirachta indica

   Neem is Azadirachta indica.

2. The botanical name of tulsi is

   1. Withania somnifera
   2. Aloe vera
   3. Ocimum sanctum
   4. Azadirachta indica
   Answer

   C. Ocimum sanctum

   Tulsi belongs to genus Ocimum.

3. Turmeric is botanically known as

   1. Zingiber officinale
   2. Cinchona officinalis
   3. Piper nigrum
   4. Curcuma longa
   Answer

   D. Curcuma longa

   Curcuma longa; the used part is the rhizome.

4. The part of turmeric that is used is the

   1. root tip
   2. rhizome
   3. bark
   4. seed
   Answer

   B. rhizome

   Rhizome is an underground stem.

5. Who introduced binomial nomenclature?

   1. Charles Darwin
   2. Robert Hooke
   3. Gregor Mendel
   4. Carl Linnaeus
   Answer

   D. Carl Linnaeus

   Linnaeus standardised two-part names.

6. In a botanical name, the first word is the

   1. species, written with a capital letter
   2. genus, written with a capital letter
   3. family, in small letters
   4. order, in italics only
   Answer

   B. genus, written with a capital letter

   Genus capital, species small.

7. Quinine, used against malaria, is obtained from the bark of

   1. Rauvolfia
   2. Eucalyptus
   3. Cinchona
   4. Neem
   Answer

   C. Cinchona

   Cinchona bark gives quinine.

8. Reserpine, used to lower blood pressure, comes from

   1. Catharanthus roseus
   2. Tinospora cordifolia
   3. Rauvolfia serpentina
   4. Withania somnifera
   Answer

   C. Rauvolfia serpentina

   Sarpagandha roots contain reserpine.

9. Vincristine and vinblastine, anticancer alkaloids, come from

   1. Catharanthus roseus
   2. Papaver somniferum
   3. Digitalis purpurea
   4. Taxus only
   Answer

   A. Catharanthus roseus

   Periwinkle leaves contain these alkaloids.

10. Morphine is obtained from

    1. Cinchona officinalis
    2. Papaver somniferum
    3. Ocimum sanctum
    4. Aloe vera
    Answer

    B. Papaver somniferum

    The opium poppy latex yields morphine.

11. The botanical name of ashwagandha is

    1. Tinospora cordifolia
    2. Bacopa monnieri
    3. Andrographis paniculata
    4. Withania somnifera
    Answer

    D. Withania somnifera

    Roots are used as a tonic.

12. Brahmi, used as a memory tonic, is

    1. Piper longum
    2. Zingiber officinale
    3. Phyllanthus emblica
    4. Bacopa monnieri
    Answer

    D. Bacopa monnieri

    Bacopa monnieri is the standard botanical name.

13. The botanical name of amla, rich in vitamin C, is

    1. Tamarindus indica
    2. Phyllanthus emblica
    3. Syzygium cumini
    4. Terminalia chebula
    Answer

    B. Phyllanthus emblica

    Amla is Phyllanthus emblica.

14. Giloy is botanically

    1. Piper longum
    2. Terminalia arjuna
    3. Tinospora cordifolia
    4. Aloe vera
    Answer

    C. Tinospora cordifolia

    The stem is used for fever and immunity.

15. Triphala consists of amla, harad and

    1. neem
    2. tulsi
    3. baheda
    4. ginger
    Answer

    C. baheda

    Baheda is Terminalia bellirica.

16. The botanical name of teak is

    1. Pterocarpus santalinus
    2. Santalum album
    3. Shorea robusta
    4. Tectona grandis
    Answer

    D. Tectona grandis

    Teak is Tectona grandis.

17. Sal is botanically

    1. Ficus religiosa
    2. Shorea robusta
    3. Tectona grandis
    4. Madhuca longifolia
    Answer

    B. Shorea robusta

    Sal is Shorea robusta.

18. Red sanders, a valuable endemic tree of the Eastern Ghats, is

    1. Dalbergia sissoo
    2. Pterocarpus santalinus
    3. Tectona grandis
    4. Santalum album
    Answer

    B. Pterocarpus santalinus

    Do not confuse it with sandalwood, Santalum album.

19. Sandalwood has the botanical name

    1. Pterocarpus santalinus
    2. Mangifera indica
    3. Shorea robusta
    4. Santalum album
    Answer

    D. Santalum album

    Santalum album is a root parasite with fragrant heartwood.

20. The national tree of India, the banyan, is

    1. Azadirachta indica
    2. Mangifera indica
    3. Ficus benghalensis
    4. Ficus religiosa
    Answer

    C. Ficus benghalensis

    Peepal is Ficus religiosa.

21. The botanical name of peepal is

    1. Terminalia arjuna
    2. Ficus benghalensis
    3. Ficus religiosa
    4. Syzygium cumini
    Answer

    C. Ficus religiosa

    It is the sacred fig.

22. The botanical name of mango is

    1. Syzygium cumini
    2. Tamarindus indica
    3. Citrus limon
    4. Mangifera indica
    Answer

    D. Mangifera indica

    The national fruit of India.

23. Arjuna bark is traditionally used as a

    1. heart tonic
    2. hair dye
    3. pain-killer for teeth
    4. cough syrup base
    Answer

    A. heart tonic

    Terminalia arjuna bark is used for the heart.

24. Soapnut, used as a natural cleanser, belongs to genus

    1. Piper
    2. Sapindus
    3. Aloe
    4. Withania
    Answer

    B. Sapindus

    Sapindus mukorossi.

25. Ginger is botanically

    1. Piper nigrum
    2. Elettaria cardamomum
    3. Zingiber officinale
    4. Curcuma longa
    Answer

    C. Zingiber officinale

    Ginger rhizome.

26. Black pepper is botanically

    1. Piper longum
    2. Piper nigrum
    3. Capsicum annuum
    4. Zingiber officinale
    Answer

    B. Piper nigrum

    Piper longum is long pepper (pippali).

27. The anticancer compound taxol comes from

    1. yew (Taxus)
    2. turmeric
    3. neem
    4. tulsi
    Answer

    A. yew (Taxus)

    Taxol was first obtained from Pacific yew bark.

28. Curcumin is the active compound of

    1. neem
    2. aloe
    3. ginger
    4. turmeric
    Answer

    D. turmeric

    Curcumin gives turmeric its yellow colour.

29. Azadirachtin, a natural insecticide, comes from

    1. tulsi
    2. amla
    3. pepper
    4. neem
    Answer

    D. neem

    Azadirachtin is found in neem seeds.

30. The Latin family names of plants end in

    1. -idae
    2. -aceae
    3. -ales only
    4. -ina
    Answer

    B. -aceae

    For example, Poaceae for grasses.

31. NTFP stands for

    1. Non-Timber Forest Produce
    2. Natural Tree Fibre Product
    3. Native Timber Forest Product
    4. National Tree Forest Plan
    Answer

    A. Non-Timber Forest Produce

    Honey, gum, tamarind and herbs are NTFPs.

32. Biopiracy means

    1. captive breeding of wild animals
    2. planting trees in forests
    3. unauthorised use of biological resources or traditional knowledge
    4. legal export of timber
    Answer

    C. unauthorised use of biological resources or traditional knowledge

    The Biological Diversity Act regulates access and benefit sharing.

33. Which is not produced by a plant?

    1. Resin
    2. Lac
    3. Gum
    4. Latex
    Answer

    B. Lac

    Lac is secreted by an insect on host trees.

34. The botanical name of the rubber tree is

    1. Ficus elastica only
    2. Hevea brasiliensis
    3. Tectona grandis
    4. Acacia nilotica
    Answer

    B. Hevea brasiliensis

    Hevea brasiliensis is the main source of natural rubber.

35. Which part of aloe vera is used for burns and skin care?

    1. Leaf gel
    2. Bark
    3. Seed
    4. Root
    Answer

    A. Leaf gel

    The gel in the leaf is soothing.

36. Mahua flowers, used by tribal communities, are from

    1. Tamarindus indica
    2. Sapindus mukorossi
    3. Madhuca longifolia
    4. Pongamia pinnata
    Answer

    C. Madhuca longifolia

    Mahua is Madhuca longifolia (indica).

37. Karanj or pongamia seed oil is a source of

    1. morphine
    2. rubber
    3. quinine
    4. biodiesel
    Answer

    D. biodiesel

    Pongamia seed oil can be used as a biofuel.

38. Consider the statements. 1. Turmeric uses the rhizome. 2. Ginger uses the root. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Ginger is also a rhizome, an underground stem.

39. Consider the statements. 1. Teak is Tectona grandis. 2. Sal is Santalum album. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Sal is Shorea robusta.

40. Consider the statements. 1. Binomial nomenclature was given by Linnaeus. 2. The species name begins with a capital letter. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The species name begins with a small letter.

41. Consider the statements. 1. Cinchona is the source of quinine. 2. Opium poppy is the source of morphine. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

42. Consider the statements. 1. Red sanders and sandalwood are the same species. 2. Red sanders is Pterocarpus santalinus. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    They are different species; sandalwood is Santalum album.

43. Consider the statements. 1. Triphala contains amla. 2. Triphala contains tulsi. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Triphala is amla, harad and baheda.

44. Consider the statements. 1. Lac is a plant product. 2. Gum from acacia is a plant product. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Lac is produced by an insect.

45. Consider the statements. 1. Periwinkle gives anticancer alkaloids. 2. Sarpagandha gives reserpine. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.