Indo-Islamic Architecture

4.1 Delhi Sultanate Period

• Fusion of Islamic structural principles (true arches, domes, minarets, calligraphic/geometric ornamentation, absence of figural representation) with Indian craftsmanship and materials (often reusing temple spolia in the earliest structures).
• Qutub Minar (begun by Qutbuddin Aibak, completed by Iltutmish, with later additions by Firoz Shah Tughlaq and Alauddin Khalji's Alai Darwaza gateway) — the tallest brick minaret in the world, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi) — earliest mosque in India, built using material from demolished temples.
• Tughlaq architecture: Austere, sloping (batter) walls for defensive strength, as at Tughlaqabad Fort.
• Provincial Sultanate styles: Jaunpur (Sharqi dynasty, Atala Masjid), Bengal (brick/terracotta, curved "do-chala" roofs), Gujarat (Jama Masjid Ahmedabad, blending Jain/Hindu decorative motifs), Malwa (Mandu's Jahaz Mahal, Hoshang Shah's Tomb).

4.2 Mughal Architecture

• Akbar's period: Red sandstone with white marble inlay, blending Hindu architectural elements (chhatris, brackets, jharokhas). Key works: Humayun's Tomb (Delhi, built by his widow Bega Begum, an important precursor to the Taj Mahal and the first grand Mughal garden-tomb), Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri (Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, Jodha Bai's Palace), Akbar's Tomb (Sikandra).
• Shah Jahan's period (the zenith): Extensive white marble use with pietra dura (parchin kari) inlay. Taj Mahal (Agra, built for Mumtaz Mahal, UNESCO World Heritage Site, blending Persian, Timurid, and Indian elements), Red Fort and Jama Masjid (Delhi), Moti Masjid (Agra Fort).
• Charbagh garden style: A quadrilateral garden divided into four by walkways/water channels (Persian/Timurid origin), seen at Humayun's Tomb, the Taj Mahal complex, and Shalimar Bagh (Kashmir/Lahore).
• Aurangzeb's period: Relative decline in lavish patronage; notable works include the Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad, a more modest echo of the Taj Mahal) and the Badshahi Mosque (Lahore).

4.3 Regional Islamic and Post-Mughal Architecture

• Vijayanagara style: Elaborate pillared halls (mandapas) with carved rearing-horse/yali pillars, ornate gopurams, and the iconic stone chariot at the Vittala Temple, Hampi.
• Bahmani/Deccan Sultanate architecture: Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur, Adil Shahi dynasty) — has one of the largest pre-modern domes in the world and a famous "whispering gallery."
• Rajput fort-palace architecture: Chittorgarh Fort, Amber Fort (Jaipur), Mehrangarh Fort (Jodhpur) — blending defensive military design with ornate residential mahals.
• Sikh architecture: The Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple, Amritsar), built under Guru Arjan Dev, notable for entrances on all four sides symbolising universal openness, later gilded under Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
• Stepwells (Baolis/Vavs): A distinctive medieval water-conservation architectural form — Rani ki Vav (Patan, Gujarat, UNESCO site) and Chand Baori (Abhaneri, Rajasthan) are the most celebrated examples.