Part 1 — Hindustani & Carnatic Foundations

Introduction

Indian music is broadly divided into two great classical systems — Hindustani classical music (North India) and Carnatic classical music (South India) — alongside a vast and varied body of folk music unique to each region, and modern film/popular music. Both classical systems trace their theoretical roots to the ancient Samaveda (one of the four Vedas, closely linked with musical chanting) and share foundational concepts of raga (melodic framework) and tala (rhythmic cycle), though they diverged as distinct systems roughly from the 13th–16th centuries onward due to differing regional, courtly, and devotional influences (Hindustani music absorbing Persian and Central Asian elements under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughals; Carnatic music retaining closer continuity with older Sanskritic and Dravidian devotional traditions).

Foundational Concepts

Raga is a melodic framework of specific notes (swaras) with defined ascending (Aroha) and descending (Avaroha) patterns, associated traditionally with particular moods, times of day, or seasons. Tala is the rhythmic cycle governing the pace and structure of a composition, counted in cyclical beats (e.g., Teentaal in Hindustani music has 16 beats). The seven basic swaras (notes) are Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni (Shadja, Rishabh, Gandhar, Madhyam, Pancham, Dhaivat, Nishad) — equivalent to the Western solfège Do-Re-Mi. Shruti refers to the smallest audible interval of pitch. The drone instrument (commonly the Tanpura) provides a continuous background pitch reference throughout a performance.

Hindustani Classical Music

Hindustani music developed primarily in North India, significantly shaped by Mughal court patronage, and is traditionally associated with Gharanas — hereditary or discipleship-based schools/lineages, each with a distinctive stylistic approach (e.g., Gwalior, Kirana, Agra, Patiala, Jaipur-Atrauli Gharanas for vocal music).

Dhrupad is considered the oldest surviving form of Hindustani classical vocal music, austere and devotional in character, traditionally associated with the Dagar family of musicians. Khayal, meaning "imagination," is today the dominant Hindustani vocal genre, more ornamented and improvisational than Dhrupad, believed to have been popularised by Amir Khusrau (13th–14th century) and later systematised under composers like Sadarang in the 18th-century Mughal court. Lighter genres include Thumri (romantic/devotional, associated with Lucknow's Wajid Ali Shah court), Ghazal (Urdu poetic song form), and Bhajan (devotional).

Legendary Figures

Tansen, one of the "Navaratnas" (nine gems) of Emperor Akbar's court, is the most celebrated figure in Hindustani music history, credited with composing several ragas including Miyan ki Malhar, Miyan ki Todi, and Darbari Kanada; a major music festival, the Tansen Samaroh, is held annually at his tomb in Gwalior. Baiju Bawra is a semi-legendary contemporary/rival musician of Tansen, subject of much folklore and later cinema.

Twentieth-century giants include Bhimsen Joshi (Kirana Gharana, Bharat Ratna 2008), Pandit Ravi Shankar (sitar virtuoso who globally popularised Indian classical music, Bharat Ratna 1999, collaborated with The Beatles' George Harrison), Ustad Bismillah Khan (shehnai maestro, Bharat Ratna 2001, famously played at the Red Fort on India's first Independence Day in 1947), Ustad Zakir Hussain (tabla virtuoso, son of Ustad Alla Rakha), Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia (flute), Ustad Amjad Ali Khan (sarod), Kishori Amonkar (Jaipur-Atrauli Gharana vocalist), and Girija Devi (Thumri exponent, Banaras Gharana).

Carnatic Classical Music

Carnatic music, the classical tradition of South India, is characterised by its strong devotional (bhakti) orientation, structured compositions (kritis), and the central role of the Trinity of Carnatic Music: Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Shyama Shastri, all born in Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, in the 18th century, credited with composing thousands of devotional kritis chiefly in praise of Hindu deities.

Compositions typically follow structural forms such as Varnam (technical showpiece), Kriti (the primary devotional composition form), Padam, and Tillana (a rhythmic, often dance-accompanying piece). Key instruments include the Veena (plucked string instrument, closely associated with goddess Saraswati), Mridangam (percussion), Violin (adapted for Carnatic style, played seated, bowed differently from Western technique), Nadaswaram (wind instrument, prominent in South Indian temple and wedding music, often paired with the Thavil drum), and the Ghatam (clay pot percussion) and Kanjira (frame drum) as supporting rhythm instruments.

Legendary Figures

M.S. Subbulakshmi, the first musician to receive the Bharat Ratna (1998) and among the most revered Carnatic vocalists globally, was celebrated for her rendition of "Kurai Onrum Illai," a favourite of Mahatma Gandhi, and famously performed at the United Nations General Assembly in 1966. Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer, Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavatar, D.K. Pattammal, Maharajapuram Santhanam, and instrumentalists Lalgudi Jayaraman (violin), Chitti Babu (veena), and Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan (violin) are among the tradition's most celebrated names.

Folk Music of India

Folk music varies enormously by region and community and forms a distinct exam category from classical music.

Baul music (Bengal) is a mystic minstrel tradition combining elements of Sufi, Vaishnav-Sahajiya, and Tantric philosophy, traditionally performed by wandering singer-poets (Bauls) with the single-stringed Ektara; inscribed by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2005. Rajasthani folk music includes the Manganiyar and Langa communities' hereditary musical traditions, performed with instruments like the Kamayacha and Sarangi. Bhangra songs (Punjab) accompany the Bhangra dance. Lavani (Maharashtra) blends song and dance. Bihu songs (Assam) accompany the Bihu festival. Pandavani (Chhattisgarh) is a ballad-singing tradition narrating episodes from the Mahabharata, popularised nationally by Teejan Bai (Bharat Ratna-eligible Padma Vibhushan recipient). Sufi qawwali, though pan-Indian/Subcontinental, has deep roots in Indo-Islamic devotional music, historically shaped by Amir Khusrau, and popularised in the modern era by the Sabri Brothers and Pakistani-Indian shared heritage figures.

Institutions and Awards

The Sangeet Natak Akademi (est. 1952) is the apex body recognising excellence in music alongside dance and drama, conferring the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award and Akademi Fellowship. Major music festivals include the Sawai Gandharva Bhimsen Mahotsav (Pune), Tansen Samaroh (Gwalior), Thyagaraja Aradhana (Thiruvaiyaru, Tamil Nadu, commemorating Tyagaraja), and the Chennai Music Season/Margazhi festival.

Playback and Film Music

Indian film music, especially from the Mumbai ("Bollywood") and regional film industries, has been enormously influential and often draws directly on classical and folk idioms. Lata Mangeshkar ("Nightingale of India," Bharat Ratna 2001) and her sister Asha Bhosle dominated playback singing for decades. Music directors such as R.D. Burman, S.D. Burman, Naushad, A.R. Rahman (two-time Oscar winner for Slumdog Millionaire, 2009), and Ilaiyaraaja are landmark figures. A.R. Rahman is notably the only Indian to win two Academy Awards in the same ceremony (Best Original Score and Best Original Song, 2009), alongside Grammy and BAFTA honours.