Part 2 — Ragas, Instruments & Deeper Notes

The Thaat and Melakarta Systems

Both classical systems classify ragas using parent-scale frameworks. In Hindustani music, Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande (early 20th century) systematised ragas into 10 Thaats (parent scales) — Bilawal, Kalyan, Khamaj, Bhairav, Poorvi, Marwa, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, and Todi — a foundational classification still taught today. In Carnatic music, the Melakarta system organises the 72 fundamental parent ragas (janaka ragas), from which countless derivative (janya) ragas are formed; this system was formalised by Venkatamakhin in the 17th century in his treatise Chaturdandi Prakashika.

Time Theory of Ragas (Hindustani)

A distinctive feature of Hindustani music is the association of specific ragas with particular times of day or seasons, believed to enhance their emotional resonance — for example, Raga Bhairav is traditionally performed at dawn, Raga Yaman in the early evening, Raga Malkauns late at night, and Raga Megh Malhar is associated with the monsoon season, with legendary (though scientifically unverified) folklore claiming it can induce rainfall. This "time theory" (samay-tattva) has no direct parallel in Carnatic music, which does not organise ragas by time of day in the same systematic way.

The Two Music Systems' Historical Divergence

Scholars generally trace the divergence of Hindustani and Carnatic music to roughly the 13th–14th centuries, accelerating after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal rule in the north, which introduced Persian and Central Asian musical influences (new instruments, performance contexts, and aesthetic sensibilities) largely absent in the Vijayanagara and later Maratha/Nayaka-patronised south, where music remained more closely tied to temple worship and Sanskrit/Telugu/Tamil devotional literature. Despite the divergence, both systems retain the shared Vedic-era conceptual vocabulary of raga, tala, and swara, and cross-influences (shared ragas under different names, occasional fusion collaborations) continued throughout history.

Devotional and Regional Vocal Traditions

Bhajan is a devotional song genre found across India in multiple languages, historically associated with the Bhakti movement saint-poets such as Meera Bai, Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas (North India) and Purandara Dasa (regarded as the "father of Carnatic music" for systematising its pedagogical structure, South India). Qawwali, a Sufi devotional form with roots traced to Amir Khusrau in the 13th century, is performed in a call-and-response group format, traditionally at Sufi shrines (dargahs) such as the Nizamuddin Dargah in Delhi. Kirtan is a call-and-response devotional singing style prominent in Vaishnavite traditions, especially in Bengal (associated with Chaitanya Mahaprabhu) and Punjab (Sikh Gurbani Kirtan in gurdwaras).

Modern Institutions and Music Education

Beyond the Sangeet Natak Akademi, prominent music education institutions include the Bhatkhande Sangeet Vidyapith (Lucknow, Hindustani), Gandharva Mahavidyalaya (Mumbai, founded by Vishnu Digambar Paluskar), and various university music departments across South India for Carnatic training. All-India Radio's National Programme of Music and Vividh Bharati historically played a significant role in popularising both classical and folk music nationally.

Notable Musical Instruments — Deeper Notes

The Sitar, a long-necked plucked lute with sympathetic strings, was significantly developed in its modern form during the 18th century and is closely associated with performers like Ravi Shankar and Vilayat Khan (each representing distinct playing styles/gharanas, the Maihar-Senia and Imdadkhani gharanas respectively). The Sarod, a fretless plucked instrument with a metal fingerboard producing a distinctive deep, resonant tone, is associated with the Senia and Bangash lineages, including Ustad Ali Akbar Khan and Amjad Ali Khan. The Santoor, a hammered dulcimer of Kashmiri folk origin, was elevated to classical concert status largely through the efforts of Pandit Shivkumar Sharma in the mid-20th century. The Tabla, the principal percussion instrument of Hindustani music, consists of two drums (the smaller wooden "dayan/tabla" and larger metal "bayan/dagga") and has its own distinct gharanas (Delhi, Ajrada, Lucknow, Farrukhabad, Benares, Punjab).

Music and the Freedom Movement

Music played a notable mobilising role in the freedom struggle. "Vande Mataram," from Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel Anandamath, was set to music and became a rallying nationalist song, later adopted as India's National Song (distinct from the National Anthem). "Jana Gana Mana," composed by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted as India's National Anthem in 1950. Nationalist gatherings frequently opened with patriotic Bhajans and folk songs adapted with nationalist lyrics, and musicians such as Ustad Bismillah Khan explicitly linked their art to the new nation's identity, most visibly through his historic 1947 Red Fort performance.