Medieval India — Key Facts for GD/RPF Constable
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Why This Chapter Matters
Medieval India covers roughly eight centuries — from the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 13th century to the decline of Mughal power in the 18th century — and is another dependable source of scoring questions in SSC GD and RPF Constable exams. This period is tested through dynasty names, founder-successor sequences, famous monuments, administrative innovations, and the socio-religious Bhakti and Sufi movements. As with Ancient India, the examiner rarely asks "why" — the questions are almost entirely "who," "when" and "which," making this chapter ideal for building a rock-solid fact bank through tables and timelines.
The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE)
The Delhi Sultanate refers to five successive dynasties that ruled North India from Delhi following the establishment of Muslim rule by Qutbuddin Aibak in 1206, until its conquest by Babur in 1526 at the First Battle of Panipat.
The Five Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate
| Dynasty | Approx. Period | Founder | Notable Rulers |
|---|---|---|---|
| Slave (Mamluk/Ilbari) Dynasty | 1206-1290 | Qutbuddin Aibak | Iltutmish, Razia Sultana, Balban |
| Khalji Dynasty | 1290-1320 | Jalaluddin Khalji | Alauddin Khalji |
| Tughlaq Dynasty | 1320-1414 | Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq | Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firoz Shah Tughlaq |
| Sayyid Dynasty | 1414-1451 | Khizr Khan | Relatively weak rulers |
| Lodi Dynasty | 1451-1526 | Bahlul Lodi | Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi |
Key Rulers and What Is Asked About Them
- Qutbuddin Aibak — founder of the Slave Dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate; began construction of the Qutub Minar (completed by his successor Iltutmish); died in Lahore after falling from a horse while playing chaugan (polo).
- Iltutmish — consolidated the Sultanate, introduced the silver tanka and copper jital coins, and organised the "Chahalgani" (the Forty, a group of loyal Turkic nobles).
- Razia Sultana — Iltutmish's daughter and the only woman to rule as Sultan of Delhi; her short reign (1236-1240) ended after opposition from Turkic nobles.
- Balban — known for his "Theory of Kingship" (blood and lineage, divine right) and the "iron and blood" policy to crush the nobility and strengthen central authority.
- Alauddin Khalji — introduced market control reforms (price control of essential commodities to sustain a large standing army), defeated Mongol invasions, and annexed large parts of the Deccan and South India through his general Malik Kafur.
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq — known for controversial and often misjudged policies: transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad), and introduction of token/copper currency in place of silver, both of which are commonly asked exam facts.
- Firoz Shah Tughlaq — known for public works (canals, rest houses), and for bringing Ashokan pillars from Topra and Meerut to Delhi.
- Ibrahim Lodi — last Sultan of Delhi, defeated and killed by Babur at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, ending the Sultanate and beginning Mughal rule.
Administration Under the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultans developed an administrative structure that blended Perso-Islamic traditions with Indian conditions. The Sultan was the head of the state, assisted by nobles and officials including the Wazir (chief minister, in charge of finance), the Ariz-i-Mumalik (in charge of the military department), and the Qazi (in charge of justice). The empire was divided into provinces called Iqtas, governed by Iqtadars (or Muqtis), who collected revenue and maintained troops on behalf of the Sultan — a system particularly systematised under Iltutmish. Alauddin Khalji's market reforms are especially well documented: he fixed prices for grain, cloth, horses and other essential goods, and set up a network of market inspectors (Shahna-i-Mandi) to enforce these controls, primarily to maintain a large army at a sustainable cost while curbing profiteering by traders.
The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646 CE)
The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, brothers who established a powerful Hindu kingdom in South India with its capital at Vijayanagara (present-day Hampi, Karnataka), partly as a bulwark against the southward expansion of the Delhi Sultanate and the Bahmani Sultanate. The empire reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya (r. 1509-1529) of the Tuluva dynasty, a great patron of art, literature (his court reputedly had the "Ashtadiggajas," eight great Telugu poets) and temple architecture, and an able military commander who defeated the Bahmani sultans and the Gajapatis of Odisha. The empire's decline began after its defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565) against a confederacy of Deccan Sultanates, after which Hampi was sacked and largely abandoned.
The Bahmani Sultanate (1347-1527 CE)
Founded by Alauddin Bahman Shah in 1347 in the Deccan, the Bahmani Sultanate was a long-standing rival of the Vijayanagara Empire. It eventually broke up into five smaller "Deccan Sultanates" — Bijapur (Adil Shahi), Golconda (Qutb Shahi), Ahmadnagar (Nizam Shahi), Bidar (Barid Shahi) and Berar (Imad Shahi) — which together defeated Vijayanagara at Talikota in 1565.
The Mughal Empire (1526-1857 CE, effective power to mid-18th century)
The Mughal Empire was founded by Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, a Central Asian ruler descended from Timur (on his father's side) and Genghis Khan (on his mother's side), who defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.
Sher Shah Suri — The Interlude That Is Frequently Tested
Sher Shah Suri briefly interrupted Mughal rule by defeating Humayun and ruling North India from 1540 to 1545. Though his reign was short, he is remembered for genuinely lasting reforms: he built the Grand Trunk Road (from Bengal to the Indus, later extended further), reorganised the currency by introducing a standardised silver coin called the rupiya (a term that survives in India's currency name today), and reformed land revenue assessment, measuring land and fixing revenue demand on the basis of crop yield — a system that influenced later Mughal administration, especially the reforms of Akbar's revenue minister Raja Todar Mal. Sher Shah died in 1545 from an accidental gunpowder explosion during the siege of Kalinjar fort.
Humayun's Tomb and Its Historical Significance
After his death in 1556, Humayun was buried in a tomb commissioned by his widow, Haji Begum (Bega Begum), in Delhi. Completed around 1572, Humayun's Tomb is considered the first major example of Mughal garden-tomb architecture in India, and it directly inspired the design of later Mughal tombs, most notably the Taj Mahal built roughly seven decades later.
Major Mughal Emperors
| Emperor | Approx. Reign | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | 1526-1530 | Founder; won the First Battle of Panipat (1526) against Ibrahim Lodi and the Battle of Khanwa (1527) against Rana Sanga; wrote his memoirs, the Baburnama |
| Humayun | 1530-1540, 1555-1556 | Lost his kingdom to Sher Shah Suri, regained it in 1555 with Safavid Persian help; died in 1556 after a fall from his library stairs |
| Sher Shah Suri (interregnum) | 1540-1545 | Not a Mughal, but ruled Delhi during Humayun's exile; built the Grand Trunk Road, introduced the rupiya (silver coin), and reformed land revenue administration |
| Akbar | 1556-1605 | Greatest Mughal ruler; won the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) as a minor under Bairam Khan's regency; introduced Mansabdari system, Din-i-Ilahi, and abolished jizya (tax on non-Muslims) |
| Jahangir | 1605-1627 | Known for justice (the "Chain of Justice"), patronage of painting; married Mehr-un-Nisa (Nur Jahan) in 1611 |
| Shah Jahan | 1628-1658 | "Golden Age" of Mughal architecture; built the Taj Mahal (in memory of Mumtaz Mahal), Red Fort, and Jama Masjid |
| Aurangzeb | 1658-1707 | Empire reached its greatest territorial extent; reintroduced jizya; reign marked by prolonged Deccan wars and rising regional resistance (Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs) |
Akbar — Key Details Frequently Asked
- Won the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu, consolidating Mughal rule in North India.
- Introduced the Mansabdari system, a hierarchical civil-military ranking system for administrators and officers.
- Founded the syncretic faith Din-i-Ilahi and abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and the pilgrimage tax.
- Married Rajput princesses and formed alliances with Rajput rulers, notably Raja Bharmal of Amber; his general Raja Man Singh was a Rajput.
- Built the city of Fatehpur Sikri, including Buland Darwaza, to commemorate his conquest of Gujarat.
- His court reputedly included the "Navaratnas," including Birbal, Tansen, Abul Fazl (author of the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari) and Raja Todar Mal (revenue reforms).
Mughal Architecture — Quick Reference
| Monument | Built By | Location |
|---|---|---|
| Humayun's Tomb | Commissioned by Haji Begum (Humayun's widow) | Delhi |
| Fatehpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza | Akbar | Near Agra |
| Taj Mahal | Shah Jahan | Agra |
| Red Fort | Shah Jahan | Delhi |
| Jama Masjid | Shah Jahan | Delhi |
Mughal Administration and Culture
The Mughals developed one of the most sophisticated administrative systems of pre-modern India. The Mansabdari system, formalised under Akbar, assigned every officer a numerical rank (mansab) indicating both civil status (zat) and military obligation (sawar, the number of cavalrymen he had to maintain) — this dual-rank structure integrated administration and military command into a single hierarchy loyal directly to the emperor. Land revenue administration under Akbar was systematised by Raja Todar Mal through the "Zabti" system, measuring land and classifying it by fertility to fix a fair and stable revenue assessment, building on ideas pioneered earlier by Sher Shah Suri.
Mughal culture is remembered as much for its art and architecture as for its administration. Persian remained the court language for most of the period, while Urdu developed as a composite language blending Persian, Arabic and local dialects, particularly flourishing in later Mughal courts. Mughal painting, especially miniature painting, reached a high point under Akbar and Jahangir, with the imperial atelier producing illustrated manuscripts such as the Akbarnama and Baburnama and finely detailed portraiture, particularly favoured by Jahangir who had a keen personal interest in naturalistic art. Classical Hindustani music also received strong patronage, most famously through Tansen, one of the "Navaratnas" at Akbar's court.
The Decline of the Mughal Empire
After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal Empire entered a long period of decline caused by weak successors, prolonged wars, financial strain, and the rise of regional powers such as the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats and the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Mughal Empire nominally continued until 1857, when the last emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British following the Revolt of 1857 and exiled to Rangoon (Yangon), where he died in 1862.
The Maratha Power
The rise of Maratha power under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630-1680) represents one of the most significant developments of the late medieval period. Shivaji built a strong, disciplined administration and army, employing guerrilla warfare tactics against the Mughals and the Bijapur Sultanate, and was formally crowned Chhatrapati at Raigad in 1674. After Shivaji, Maratha power was carried forward by his successors and later by the Peshwas (hereditary prime ministers based at Pune), who expanded Maratha influence across much of India in the 18th century, before suffering a decisive setback at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Rajput States and Their Interactions with the Sultanate and Mughals
The Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan and neighbouring regions — Mewar, Marwar, Amber (Jaipur), and others — played a significant role throughout the medieval period, alternating between fierce resistance and strategic alliance with the ruling powers of Delhi. Rana Sanga of Mewar was defeated by Babur at the Battle of Khanwa in 1527, a crucial victory that secured Mughal rule in North India shortly after Panipat. Maharana Pratap of Mewar became a symbol of Rajput resistance to Mughal authority, most famously at the Battle of Haldighati (1576) against Akbar's forces led by Raja Man Singh; though the battle itself was inconclusive, Pratap continued guerrilla resistance and never submitted to Akbar. In contrast, several other Rajput houses, notably Amber under Raja Bharmal and his descendants, entered into matrimonial and military alliances with the Mughals, and Rajput nobles such as Raja Man Singh and Raja Todar Mal rose to the highest ranks of the Mughal administration and army.
Other Notable Regional Kingdoms
- Bengal Sultanate — an independent and prosperous Muslim kingdom in Bengal from the 14th to 16th centuries, known for its distinctive terracotta and brick architecture before being absorbed into the Mughal Empire under Akbar.
- Ahom Kingdom — ruled Assam for nearly six centuries from the 13th century, notably repelling repeated Mughal invasions, most famously at the Battle of Saraighat (1671) under the Ahom general Lachit Borphukan.
- Mewar, Marwar and Amber — the principal Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan, whose complex relations with the Sultanate and Mughals (resistance, alliance, matrimonial ties) are a recurring exam theme.
The Sikh Gurus and the Rise of Sikh Power
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539) in Punjab, emphasising monotheism, equality and rejection of caste distinctions. He was followed by a line of ten Gurus, with Guru Gobind Singh (the tenth Guru) establishing the Khalsa Panth in 1699, giving the Sikh community a distinct martial and religious identity. The Adi Granth (later Guru Granth Sahib) was compiled by the fifth Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, and was later declared the eternal Guru by Guru Gobind Singh.
The Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti Movement was a devotional religious movement emphasising a direct, personal relationship with God, cutting across caste barriers, and using vernacular languages rather than Sanskrit — making it accessible to ordinary people. It had roots in South India from around the 7th-8th century CE (the Alvars, devoted to Vishnu, and the Nayanars, devoted to Shiva) and spread across the subcontinent through the medieval period.
Prominent Bhakti Saints
| Saint | Region / Language | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Ramanuja | South India | Propounded Vishishtadvaita philosophy; Vaishnavite |
| Basavanna | Karnataka | Founder of the Lingayat/Virashaiva sect |
| Kabir | North India (Hindi) | Preached a syncretic path blending Hindu and Islamic ideas; his verses form part of the Guru Granth Sahib |
| Guru Nanak | Punjab | Founder of Sikhism; emphasised one formless God |
| Chaitanya Mahaprabhu | Bengal | Popularised Krishna bhakti and sankirtan (devotional singing) |
| Mirabai | Rajasthan | Krishna devotee, composed devotional songs (bhajans) |
| Tulsidas | North India (Awadhi) | Author of the Ramcharitmanas, a retelling of the Ramayana |
| Surdas | North India (Braj) | Blind poet-saint devoted to Krishna, author of Sur Sagar |
Why the Bhakti and Sufi Movements Matter for This Exam
Questions on Bhakti and Sufi saints typically ask which language a saint composed in, which deity or philosophy they were associated with, or which text they authored — so the table above is worth memorising almost word for word. It also helps to remember the broad chronological sweep: the movement began in Tamil Nadu with the Alvars and Nayanars roughly by the 7th-8th century CE, spread to Karnataka with Basavanna in the 12th century, and reached its peak of popular influence across North India, Bengal and Maharashtra between the 14th and 17th centuries through figures such as Kabir, Guru Nanak, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Tulsidas, Surdas and Mirabai — broadly overlapping with the Sultanate and Mughal periods covered elsewhere in this chapter.
The Sufi Movement
Sufism was the mystical dimension of Islam, emphasising love and personal devotion to God over ritual, organised into various "silsilas" (orders). The Chishti order, the most influential in India, was introduced by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, whose dargah at Ajmer remains a major pilgrimage site to this day. Other prominent Chishti saints include Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi) and Baba Farid (Punjab). Sufi thought and Bhakti devotionalism together contributed to a shared culture of syncretism in medieval India, influencing music, poetry (such as the qawwali tradition, associated with Amir Khusrau) and architecture.
Timeline Summary — Medieval India at a Glance
| Year (CE) | Event |
|---|---|
| 1206 | Qutbuddin Aibak establishes the Delhi Sultanate |
| 1296-1316 | Reign of Alauddin Khalji; market reforms, Deccan expansion |
| 1336 | Founding of the Vijayanagara Empire by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I |
| 1347 | Founding of the Bahmani Sultanate by Alauddin Bahman Shah |
| 1469 | Birth of Guru Nanak Dev, founder of Sikhism |
| 1526 | First Battle of Panipat; Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi, founds Mughal Empire |
| 1527 | Battle of Khanwa; Babur defeats Rana Sanga |
| 1540-1545 | Sher Shah Suri rules North India after defeating Humayun |
| 1556 | Second Battle of Panipat; Akbar (under Bairam Khan) defeats Hemu |
| 1565 | Battle of Talikota; Vijayanagara Empire defeated by Deccan Sultanates |
| 1576 | Battle of Haldighati between Akbar's forces and Maharana Pratap |
| 1631 | Death of Mumtaz Mahal; construction of the Taj Mahal begins |
| 1674 | Coronation of Shivaji as Chhatrapati at Raigad |
| 1699 | Guru Gobind Singh establishes the Khalsa Panth |
| 1707 | Death of Aurangzeb; beginning of Mughal decline |
| 1761 | Third Battle of Panipat; Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali |
Key Facts at a Glance
- Qutbuddin Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1206; five dynasties ruled until 1526 — Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi.
- Razia Sultana was the only woman to rule as Sultan of Delhi.
- Alauddin Khalji is known for market control reforms; Muhammad bin Tughlaq for the failed transfer of capital to Daulatabad and token currency.
- Krishnadevaraya was the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire, defeated at Talikota (1565) by the Deccan Sultanates.
- Babur founded the Mughal Empire after the First Battle of Panipat (1526); Akbar is regarded as the greatest Mughal emperor.
- Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal, Red Fort and Jama Masjid; Aurangzeb's reign saw the empire's greatest extent but also its overstretch.
- Shivaji, crowned Chhatrapati in 1674 at Raigad, founded the Maratha kingdom; Marathas lost the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) to Ahmad Shah Abdali.
- Guru Nanak founded Sikhism; Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa Panth in 1699.
- Bhakti saints (Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, Chaitanya) preached devotion in vernacular languages; Sufi Chishti order was introduced by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.
- Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, was exiled after the Revolt of 1857 and died in Rangoon in 1862.
Practice MCQs
- Who founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1206?
(a) Iltutmish (b) Qutbuddin Aibak (c) Balban (d) Alauddin Khalji
Answer: (b) Qutbuddin Aibak. He founded the Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty and began construction of the Qutub Minar. - Who was the only woman to rule as Sultan of Delhi?
(a) Nur Jahan (b) Razia Sultana (c) Mumtaz Mahal (d) Chand Bibi
Answer: (b) Razia Sultana. She was Iltutmish's daughter and ruled from 1236 to 1240. - Which Delhi Sultan is known for shifting the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad?
(a) Alauddin Khalji (b) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (c) Muhammad bin Tughlaq (d) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
Answer: (c) Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He also introduced token currency, another famous but ultimately failed policy. - The Vijayanagara Empire suffered a decisive defeat in which battle?
(a) Battle of Talikota (b) Battle of Khanwa (c) Battle of Panipat (d) Battle of Haldighati
Answer: (a) Battle of Talikota (1565). A confederacy of Deccan Sultanates defeated Vijayanagara, leading to the sack of Hampi. - Who founded the Mughal Empire after the First Battle of Panipat in 1526?
(a) Humayun (b) Akbar (c) Babur (d) Sher Shah Suri
Answer: (c) Babur. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last Delhi Sultan, at Panipat. - Which Mughal emperor abolished the jizya tax and introduced the Mansabdari system?
(a) Humayun (b) Akbar (c) Jahangir (d) Shah Jahan
Answer: (b) Akbar. He is widely regarded as the greatest Mughal ruler for his administrative and religious policies. - Who built the Taj Mahal in memory of his wife?
(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir (c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb
Answer: (c) Shah Jahan. He built it in memory of Mumtaz Mahal at Agra. - Chhatrapati Shivaji was crowned at which fort in 1674?
(a) Raigad (b) Pratapgad (c) Sinhagad (d) Panhala
Answer: (a) Raigad. This is celebrated as Shivaji's formal coronation as Chhatrapati. - Who established the Khalsa Panth in 1699?
(a) Guru Nanak Dev (b) Guru Arjan Dev (c) Guru Gobind Singh (d) Guru Tegh Bahadur
Answer: (c) Guru Gobind Singh. The tenth Sikh Guru gave the Sikh community its distinct martial identity. - Which Sufi saint's dargah at Ajmer is a major pilgrimage site?
(a) Nizamuddin Auliya (b) Baba Farid (c) Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (d) Amir Khusrau
Answer: (c) Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti. He introduced the Chishti Sufi order to India. - Who authored the Ramcharitmanas, a retelling of the Ramayana in Awadhi?
(a) Surdas (b) Kabir (c) Tulsidas (d) Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Answer: (c) Tulsidas. His devotional epic remains widely read across North India. - Marathas suffered a major defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against whom?
(a) Nadir Shah (b) Ahmad Shah Abdali (c) Aurangzeb (d) Babur
Answer: (b) Ahmad Shah Abdali. This defeat significantly weakened Maratha power in North India. - Who defeated Maharana Pratap's forces at the Battle of Haldighati (1576)?
(a) Raja Man Singh, on behalf of Akbar (b) Babur (c) Sher Shah Suri (d) Aurangzeb
Answer: (a) Raja Man Singh, on behalf of Akbar. The battle was inconclusive, and Pratap continued his resistance afterward. - Which ruler built the Grand Trunk Road and introduced the rupiya coin?
(a) Akbar (b) Sher Shah Suri (c) Alauddin Khalji (d) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Answer: (b) Sher Shah Suri. He ruled North India briefly between Humayun's two reigns and left lasting administrative reforms.