Perspectives in Education and Education Policy · Chapter 11

Educational Thinkers and Schools

What to remember

Indian thinkers: Gandhi (Basic Education, "learning through craft"), Tagore (Santiniketan, nature and freedom) and Gijubhai Badheka (child-centred Bal Mandir).
Western child-centred thinkers: Froebel (Kindergarten), Montessori (prepared environment), Dewey (learning by doing) and Neill (Summerhill, freedom).
Critical thinkers: Freire (dialogue against the "banking" model), Makarenko (education through the collective and labour) and Holt (children fail because of fear in school).

Mahatma Gandhi: Basic Education (Nai Talim)

Gandhi said, "By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man: body, mind and spirit." Learning must develop head, heart and hand.
The scheme was put forward at the Wardha Education Conference in 1937. A committee led by Dr Zakir Husain prepared the detailed plan in 1938. It is called the Wardha Scheme, or Basic Education, or Nai Talim.
Free and compulsory education for children aged roughly 7 to 14 years, in the mother tongue.
A craft (such as spinning, weaving, agriculture) is the centre of teaching. Other subjects are taught in connection with the craft. This is called the correlation method.
Ideally the school could meet part of its costs from the sale of goods the children make. This links education with the dignity of labour.
Emphasis on non-violence, truth, cleanliness and service. Education is for building character and a self-reliant village life.

Rabindranath Tagore: Santiniketan and Visva-Bharati

Tagore founded a school at Santiniketan (West Bengal) in 1901. It later grew into Visva-Bharati (1921). He also began rural reconstruction at Sriniketan.
He disliked rote learning and the rigid, prison-like school. His story "The Parrot's Training" shows a bird that is "educated" until it dies.
Education should happen in close contact with nature. Classes were often held under trees in the open air.
Freedom, creativity and self-expression; music, dance, drama and art have a high place. Teaching in the mother tongue.
The ideal of universal humanism: bringing East and West together. The motto of Visva-Bharati means the world makes a home in a single nest.
The teacher is a friend and guide, not a ruler.

John Dewey: learning by doing

American philosopher of pragmatism. Education is life itself, not a preparation for life. School is a miniature society.
He founded the Laboratory School at Chicago (1896), where ideas were tried out.
Learning by doing: children learn from experience, problems and projects. His follower Kilpatrick developed the Project Method.
Important books: *The School and Society*, *How We Think*, *Democracy and Education* and *Experience and Education*.
The teacher is a guide who arranges experiences. The curriculum should be linked to the interests of the child, but the child's interest is not the only guide.
Education is a social process and is necessary for democracy.

Maria Montessori: the prepared environment

Italian doctor. She opened the Casa dei Bambini (Children's House) in Rome in 1907 for young children.
Prepared environment: child-sized furniture, orderly shelves, and didactic (self-correcting) materials that the child can use freely.
Auto-education (self-education): children teach themselves through free choice of materials.
Absorbent mind and sensitive periods: the young child absorbs the environment, and there are special periods when a skill is learnt easily.
Freedom within limits, with training of the senses and practical life activities (pouring, buttoning, cleaning).
The teacher is a directress, who observes and guides quietly. No rewards or punishments.
The method is meant mainly for children of about 3 to 6 years.

Friedrich Froebel: Kindergarten

German educator, founder of the Kindergarten ("children's garden"), the first of which opened in 1837 in Germany.
The child is like a plant; the teacher is a gardener who lets it grow. Education should follow the natural development of the child.
Self-activity and play are the main methods. He gave play materials called gifts (such as balls, blocks) and activities called occupations (such as clay modelling, paper folding).
Songs, games and stories develop mind, body and feelings. His book is *The Education of Man*.

Gijubhai Badheka

Gujarati educator, called "Moocchali Maa" (mother with a moustache) by children.
Started a Bal Mandir in Bhavnagar around 1920, adapting Montessori ideas to Indian life, with local materials and stories and songs in Gujarati.
He used stories as a main tool and opposed beating and fear.
His famous book Divaswapna (Day Dream) tells of a teacher who reforms a class by love and stories.
Pioneer of preschool and child literature in India.

A. S. Neill: Summerhill

Scottish educator who founded Summerhill School in 1921; it moved to Suffolk, England, later.
Principle: freedom, not licence. Children are free to play, and lessons are not compulsory. Fear and force are avoided.
The school is run democratically: a general school meeting where every child and adult has one vote.
Believed that happy children learn better, and that emotional health is more important than marks.
Book: *Summerhill*.

Paulo Freire: critical pedagogy

Brazilian educator. Book: *Pedagogy of the Oppressed*.
Banking education: the teacher "deposits" information into passive students, who memorise and repeat. Freire rejects this.
Problem-posing education: teachers and students learn together through dialogue, questioning real-life problems.
Conscientisation (conscientization): helping people become aware of the social and political reality which oppresses them, and act to change it.
Praxis: reflection together with action. Freire's literacy work with adult peasants linked words to their life.

Anton Makarenko

Soviet (Ukrainian) educator who worked with homeless and delinquent youth in the Gorky Colony and the Dzerzhinsky Commune.
Education through the collective: the group shapes the individual, and discipline comes from the group's own rules.
Productive labour and self-government, with high expectations and respect for each young person.
Book: *The Road to Life* (also called *The Pedagogical Poem*).

John Holt

American teacher and writer. Books: *How Children Fail* and *How Children Learn*.
Argued that children fail in school because of fear, boredom and pressure to please the teacher. Children are natural learners.
Later he supported unschooling (learning at home through the child's own interests), and published a magazine on it.

Comparison table

Thinker	Key idea	Place or work
Gandhi	Learning through craft, head-heart-hand	Wardha Scheme, 1937
Tagore	Education in nature, creativity	Santiniketan, 1901
Dewey	Learning by doing	Laboratory School, Chicago
Montessori	Prepared environment, auto-education	Casa dei Bambini, 1907
Froebel	Self-activity, play, gifts	Kindergarten, 1837
Gijubhai	Stories, love, Indian Montessori	Bal Mandir, Bhavnagar
Neill	Freedom, self-government	Summerhill
Freire	Dialogue, conscientisation	Pedagogy of the Oppressed
Makarenko	Collective and labour	Gorky Colony
Holt	Fear blocks learning; unschooling	How Children Fail

Role of teacher and child in each view

Thinker	Teacher	Child
Gandhi	Moral guide and craft model	Worker and learner through craft
Tagore	Friend in nature	Free, creative being
Dewey	Arranger of experiences	Active problem-solver
Montessori	Directress, observer	Self-educator
Froebel	Gardener	Growing plant
Gijubhai	Loving storyteller	Joyful learner
Neill	Adult in a community of equals	Free to choose
Freire	Co-learner in dialogue	Questioner of reality
Makarenko	Leader of the collective	Member of the group
Holt	Helper who removes fear	Natural learner

Classroom lessons from the thinkers

From Gandhi: link school work to productive activity and the dignity of labour.
From Tagore: take lessons outdoors, use music and art, and let children express themselves.
From Dewey: pose problems and projects; use the school as a place of democratic life.
From Montessori: arrange the classroom so that children can choose and handle materials alone.
From Froebel: use songs, games and play materials in the early years.
From Gijubhai: tell stories and create a loving atmosphere without beating.
From Neill: give children a voice in school rules.
From Freire: ask questions that connect to real life; do not just give answers.
From Makarenko: build group responsibility and shared work.
From Holt: reduce fear of tests; let children learn from mistakes.

Exam traps

Gandhi's Wardha scheme is built on craft; Tagore's school is built on nature and the arts.
Froebel gave "gifts and occupations"; Montessori gave "didactic materials".
Dewey: "education is life"; not "preparation for life".
Gijubhai (Gujarat) is the Indian Montessori follower; Montessori herself was Italian.
Neill (freedom, Summerhill) is not the same as Holt (fear in school, unschooling).
Freire's "banking" model is the thing he criticises.
Makarenko is linked to the collective; Freire to dialogue.
Basic Education's age group is about 7-14 years; Montessori's method is about 3-6 years.

One-liners

1. Gandhi's scheme of education is called Nai Talim.
2. Zakir Husain led the committee for the Wardha plan.
3. Tagore founded Santiniketan in 1901.
4. Visva-Bharati was founded in 1921.
5. Dewey founded the Laboratory School at Chicago.
6. Montessori opened the first Casa dei Bambini in 1907.
7. Froebel started the Kindergarten in 1837.
8. Gijubhai wrote Divaswapna.
9. Neill founded Summerhill in 1921.
10. Freire wrote Pedagogy of the Oppressed.
11. Makarenko worked in the Gorky Colony.
12. Holt wrote How Children Fail.

Practice questions

Gandhi's scheme of education announced at Wardha in 1937 is called
1. Summerhill
2. Kindergarten
3. Pedagogy of the Oppressed
4. Nai Talim (Basic Education)
Answer
D. Nai Talim (Basic Education)
The Wardha scheme is Nai Talim.
Who headed the committee that prepared the detailed plan of the Wardha scheme?
1. Dr S. Radhakrishnan
2. Dr D. S. Kothari
3. Dr A. L. Mudaliar
4. Dr Zakir Husain
Answer
D. Dr Zakir Husain
The Zakir Husain Committee of 1938 prepared the plan.
The centre of teaching in Gandhi's Basic Education is
1. a foreign language
2. a textbook
3. an examination
4. a craft
Answer
D. a craft
Learning is correlated with a productive craft.
Gandhi said education should develop
1. memory only
2. marks only
3. speech only
4. head, heart and hand
Answer
D. head, heart and hand
Gandhi stressed all-round development of body, mind and spirit.
Tagore founded his school at Santiniketan in
1. 1937
2. 1986
3. 1901
4. 1857
Answer
C. 1901
Santiniketan school began in 1901.
Visva-Bharati was established by
1. Mahatma Gandhi
2. Rabindranath Tagore
3. John Dewey
4. Maria Montessori
Answer
B. Rabindranath Tagore
Tagore developed Santiniketan into Visva-Bharati in 1921.
Tagore's story 'The Parrot's Training' criticises
1. craft education
2. open-air classes
3. rote and mechanical schooling
4. Kindergarten play
Answer
C. rote and mechanical schooling
The bird is 'educated' until it dies; the story attacks lifeless schooling.
Who is known for the idea of 'learning by doing'?
1. A. S. Neill
2. Paulo Freire
3. Friedrich Froebel
4. John Dewey
Answer
D. John Dewey
Dewey's pragmatism stresses learning through experience.
Dewey's Laboratory School was set up at
1. Bhavnagar
2. Santiniketan
3. Chicago
4. Rome
Answer
C. Chicago
It was founded in 1896 at Chicago.
The first Casa dei Bambini was opened by
1. Gijubhai Badheka
2. Friedrich Froebel
3. Anton Makarenko
4. Maria Montessori
Answer
D. Maria Montessori
It opened in Rome in 1907.
Kindergarten means
1. children's market
2. children's garden
3. children's court
4. children's factory
Answer
B. children's garden
The word is German for a garden of children.
Who is called the father of Kindergarten?
1. Paulo Freire
2. John Holt
3. Friedrich Froebel
4. John Dewey
Answer
C. Friedrich Froebel
Froebel founded the first kindergarten in 1837.
Gijubhai Badheka's famous book on teaching is
1. The Road to Life
2. Summerhill
3. How Children Fail
4. Divaswapna
Answer
D. Divaswapna
Divaswapna (Day Dream) is his classic.
Summerhill School was founded by
1. A. S. Neill
2. Anton Makarenko
3. Paulo Freire
4. John Holt
Answer
A. A. S. Neill
Neill founded Summerhill in 1921.
Pedagogy of the Oppressed was written by
1. John Holt
2. Paulo Freire
3. Montessori
4. A. S. Neill
Answer
B. Paulo Freire
It is Freire's best-known work.
Freire's 'banking' model of education means
1. children save money in school
2. learning happens through play
3. the teacher deposits information into passive students
4. students decide the school rules
Answer
C. the teacher deposits information into passive students
Freire rejects this one-way transfer.
The Gorky Colony is associated with
1. Anton Makarenko
2. Friedrich Froebel
3. Rabindranath Tagore
4. Maria Montessori
Answer
A. Anton Makarenko
Makarenko worked with homeless youth there.
Who wrote How Children Fail?
1. Gijubhai Badheka
2. A. S. Neill
3. John Dewey
4. John Holt
Answer
D. John Holt
Holt argued fear causes failure in school.
Montessori's special learning materials are called
1. koshas
2. didactic materials
3. occupations
4. gifts
Answer
B. didactic materials
Gifts and occupations belong to Froebel.
Froebel's play materials such as balls and blocks are called
1. didactic materials
2. gifts
3. occupations
4. koshas
Answer
B. gifts
Froebel's materials are gifts; clay work and folding are occupations.
The teacher in the Montessori method is called a
1. commander
2. dictator
3. directress
4. gardener
Answer
C. directress
The directress observes and guides quietly.
The idea of 'conscientisation' is associated with
1. Paulo Freire
2. Gandhi
3. Froebel
4. Gijubhai
Answer
A. Paulo Freire
Freire used it for awareness of social reality.
In Neill's Summerhill, important decisions are taken by
1. the head teacher alone
2. a government inspector
3. the oldest students
4. a general meeting in which each child and adult has one vote
Answer
D. a general meeting in which each child and adult has one vote
Summerhill is self-governing.
A teacher arranges a classroom with child-sized furniture and self-correcting materials from which children choose freely. This follows
1. Freire
2. Makarenko
3. Montessori
4. Gandhi
Answer
C. Montessori
This is the prepared environment.
A teacher takes a class outdoors under a tree and uses music and drama. This is closest to the ideas of
1. Makarenko
2. Holt
3. Dewey's Laboratory School only
4. Tagore
Answer
D. Tagore
Tagore stressed nature, arts and freedom.
Gijubhai Badheka was nicknamed by children as
1. Gurudev
2. Moocchali Maa
3. Bapu
4. Guruji
Answer
B. Moocchali Maa
The name means mother with a moustache.
Which of the following correctly pairs thinker and idea?
1. Makarenko - education through the collective and productive labour
2. Holt - education through craft
3. Gijubhai - banking education
4. Tagore - the Gorky Colony
Answer
A. Makarenko - education through the collective and productive labour
Makarenko stressed the collective and labour.
Unschooling, learning at home through the child's own interests, was later supported by
1. Mahatma Gandhi
2. Friedrich Froebel
3. Anton Makarenko
4. John Holt
Answer
D. John Holt
Holt published a magazine on unschooling.
Which thinker said that education is life itself and not a preparation for life?
1. John Dewey
2. Rabindranath Tagore
3. Maria Montessori
4. A. S. Neill
Answer
A. John Dewey
This is Dewey's well-known view.
The Project Method was developed by Kilpatrick from the ideas of
1. Freire
2. John Dewey
3. Tagore
4. Gandhi
Answer
B. John Dewey
Kilpatrick built on Dewey's pragmatism.
Consider these statements about Gandhi's Basic Education: 1. It is centred on a productive craft. 2. It uses a foreign language as the medium of instruction. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Basic Education used the mother tongue.
Consider these statements: 1. Tagore preferred rote learning. 2. Tagore's school stressed contact with nature. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Tagore opposed rote learning.
Consider these statements about Froebel: 1. He started the Kindergarten. 2. He compared the teacher to a gardener. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Consider these statements about Montessori: 1. Her first school was in Rome. 2. She stressed auto-education. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both describe her work.
Consider these statements about Neill: 1. Summerhill believed in freedom, not licence. 2. Lessons at Summerhill are compulsory for every child. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Lessons at Summerhill are not compulsory.
Consider these statements: 1. Freire favoured the banking model. 2. Freire's problem-posing education uses dialogue. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
He rejects the banking model.
Consider these statements about Dewey: 1. School is a miniature society. 2. Education is only a preparation for later life. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Dewey said education is life itself.
Consider these statements about Makarenko: 1. He worked with homeless and delinquent youth. 2. He believed that the group shapes the individual. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both fit Makarenko's collective approach.
Consider these statements about Gijubhai: 1. He adapted Montessori ideas to Indian life. 2. He opposed beating and fear. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are accurate.
Consider these statements: 1. Holt wrote Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 2. Holt wrote How Children Learn. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Pedagogy of the Oppressed is by Freire.
Consider these statements about the Wardha scheme: 1. It was proposed at the Wardha Education Conference in 1937. 2. It was meant for the age group of about 7 to 14 years. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Consider these statements: 1. Montessori's method is mainly for children of about 3 to 6 years. 2. Montessori used rewards and punishments as a main tool. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
She avoided rewards and punishments.
Consider these statements: 1. Tagore's Visva-Bharati was founded before his Santiniketan school. 2. Tagore started rural reconstruction at Sriniketan. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Santiniketan school (1901) came before Visva-Bharati (1921).
Consider these statements about Freire: 1. Praxis means reflection together with action. 2. Conscientisation means memorising facts. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Conscientisation means awareness of social reality.
Consider these statements: 1. Neill and Holt were both Indian educators. 2. Neill's Summerhill and Holt's writings both criticise fear in schooling. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Neill was Scottish and Holt American.

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