Perspectives in Education and Education Policy · Chapter 2

Education in British India: Pre-Independence Policies and Reports

What to remember

The British moved from supporting Oriental learning (Charter Act 1813) to English education (Macaulay 1835), then built a full system in Wood's Despatch 1854, called the "Magna Carta of English education in India".
Later bodies corrected problems: Hunter 1882 on primary and secondary education, Hartog 1929 on wastage and stagnation, Wardha 1937 on basic education, and Sargent 1944 on a national plan.
Remember each body with its year, head and main recommendation.

Background: Charter Act 1813 and the Orientalist-Anglicist debate

The Charter Act of 1813 was the first time the Company government accepted responsibility for education. It set aside a sum of one lakh rupees a year for the revival of literature, the encouragement of learned Indians and the promotion of science.

After this, a debate arose on what to teach and in which language:

*Orientalists* wanted to support Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian learning, with Indian languages as medium.
*Anglicists* wanted Western knowledge through English.

The Committee of Public Instruction was divided equally. The Governor-General Lord William Bentinck asked Thomas Babington Macaulay, the Law Member, to give his view.

Macaulay's Minute (1835)

Macaulay argued that the money should be spent on English education. Main points:

Sanskrit and Arabic literature were of little use for the new needs; Western science and literature were better.
The government should create "a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect", who would act as interpreters between the rulers and the people.
English was to be the medium of higher education; the vernaculars were to be developed later.
This led to the *downward filtration theory*: education given to the upper classes would slowly "filter down" to the masses.

Lord Bentinck's resolution of 1835 accepted this policy. English became the medium and the main subject of government-supported higher education. Effects: growth of English schools and colleges, a class of English-educated Indians, neglect of mass education and vernacular education, and the idea that English knowledge was required for government jobs. Later, Lord Hardinge's policy (1844) gave preference in public jobs to English-educated persons.

Wood's Despatch (1854)

Sir Charles Wood, President of the Board of Control of the East India Company, sent a long educational despatch to the Governor-General Lord Dalhousie. It is called the "Magna Carta of English education in India" because it laid out a complete plan.

Main recommendations:

1. A *Department of Public Instruction* in each province, headed by a Director.
2. *Universities* at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, on the model of London University (established 1857); they would only conduct examinations and give degrees at first (affiliating type).
3. A graded system: primary vernacular schools, Anglo-vernacular high schools, affiliated colleges and universities.
4. The *grants-in-aid system* to encourage private effort, based on conditions such as good teaching, fees and inspection.
5. English for higher education and the vernacular for the masses; it rejected the idea that English should replace the Indian languages.
6. *Teacher training* institutions (normal schools).
7. Promotion of *women's education* and of vocational and technical education.
8. Secular education in government institutions; no religious teaching in government schools.
9. Education of the whole population, and a rejection of the sole use of filtration theory.

Results: growth of schools and universities, the grants-in-aid system, an inspection system and an examination-focused system. The result stressed English and literary studies more than technical education.

Hunter Commission (1882)

Sir William Wilson Hunter headed the *Indian Education Commission* appointed by Lord Ripon. It reviewed the progress since 1854. It dealt mainly with primary and secondary education and did not consider university education.

Recommendations:

Primary education should be given the first priority and taught in the vernacular; it should be useful for practical life. Its control should be transferred to *district and municipal boards*.
Secondary education to have two divisions: a *literary* course for university entry and a *vocational* course for commercial and technical careers.
The government should step out of direct management of secondary and college institutions and encourage private effort through grants-in-aid.
Better teacher training and attention to women's education and to backward classes.
Support to religious neutrality and moral education.

Result: expansion of private schools; but later the vocational idea was weak and the focus stayed on literary studies.

Hartog Committee (1929)

Sir Philip Hartog led the *Auxiliary Committee* of the Indian Statutory (Simon) Commission to review education.

Main findings and suggestions:

Too much *wastage* (leaving school before completion) and *stagnation* (staying in the same class for more than a year) in primary education.
*Consolidation rather than rapid expansion* of primary education; compulsory education to be introduced carefully.
Improve teachers' training, pay and working conditions.
Middle school (vernacular) stage students should be diverted to vocational courses, and only the able should go to high school and university.
Standards in universities should be raised; a selective entry to avoid an overcrowding.
Better education for girls.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)

Mahatma Gandhi presented the scheme of *Basic education* (*Nai Talim*, also *Buniyadi Shiksha*) at the Wardha Education Conference in October 1937. Dr Zakir Husain headed the committee that worked out its details.

Features:

Free and compulsory education for seven years (age 7 to 14).
*Mother tongue* as the medium of instruction.
A basic *craft* (such as spinning and weaving, carpentry, agriculture) as the centre of learning; all subjects are linked with the craft, the environment and social life ("learning by doing").
The craft was also expected to make the school largely self-supporting.
Non-violence and values of cooperation and dignity of labour.
No English at the basic stage.
Education of the head, heart and hand.

Gandhi's famous idea: "by education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man: body, mind and spirit."

Sargent Report (1944)

Sir John Sargent, Educational Adviser to the Government of India, prepared the *Post-War Educational Development Plan* for the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE). It aimed to bring India's education to the level of Britain's in about forty years.

Recommendations:

Pre-primary education for ages 3 to 6.
Universal, free and compulsory *basic education* for ages 6 to 14 (junior basic 6 to 11 and senior basic 11 to 14).
High school of six years for selected children (about 11 to 17), in two types: academic and technical/vocational.
A three-year university degree course after high school; the intermediate course to be abolished.
Technical, vocational and adult education; teacher training; physical education; and care of the handicapped children.
Proper pay and service for teachers; school medical services.

The Sargent Plan became the base for later planning after independence.

Summary table

Year	Body or document	Head or person	Main idea
1813	Charter Act	—	One lakh rupees for education; government responsibility begins
1835	Macaulay's Minute	T.B. Macaulay	English as medium; downward filtration
1854	Wood's Despatch	Charles Wood	Complete plan; universities; grants-in-aid; Department of Public Instruction
1882	Hunter Commission	W.W. Hunter	Primary education to local boards; literary and vocational streams
1929	Hartog Committee	Philip Hartog	Wastage and stagnation; consolidation
1937	Wardha Scheme	M.K. Gandhi (Zakir Husain Committee)	Basic education; craft-centred; mother tongue
1944	Sargent Report	John Sargent	Post-war plan; universal basic education for 6 to 14

Teaching angle

Many ideas continue to shape schools: learning through mother tongue and activity (Wardha), cutting wastage and stagnation (Hartog), teacher training (Wood), and universal elementary education for ages 6 to 14 (Sargent). A DSC candidate should link each body with its main idea, not just the year.

Exam traps

Macaulay vs Wood: Macaulay (1835) gave the English-medium policy; Wood (1854) gave the complete plan and universities.
Wood's Despatch vs Hunter: Wood = 1854, grants-in-aid and universities; Hunter = 1882, primary education to local boards.
Wastage vs stagnation: wastage = dropping out; stagnation = repeating the same class.
Hartog vs Hunter: Hartog (1929) = consolidation; Hunter (1882) = primary education priority.
Wardha vs Sargent: Wardha = craft-based basic education by Gandhi; Sargent = state plan with age groups.
Orientalists vs Anglicists: Orientalists favoured Indian classical languages; Anglicists favoured English.
Downward filtration: it belongs to the Macaulay policy, not to Wood's final plan.
Basic education age: seven years, from 7 to 14 in the Wardha scheme; 6 to 14 in the Sargent plan.

One-liners

1. The Charter Act 1813 gave an annual grant of one lakh rupees for education.
2. Macaulay's Minute is dated 1835.
3. Macaulay supported the downward filtration theory.
4. Wood's Despatch (1854) is called the Magna Carta of English education.
5. Universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were set up in 1857.
6. Wood's Despatch introduced the grants-in-aid system.
7. The Hunter Commission was appointed in 1882 under Lord Ripon.
8. The Hunter Commission wanted primary education to be transferred to local boards.
9. The Hartog Committee (1929) studied wastage and stagnation.
10. Gandhi's Basic education is also called Nai Talim.
11. The Zakir Husain Committee worked out the Wardha scheme.
12. The Sargent Report (1944) proposed free and compulsory education for ages 6 to 14.

Practice questions

The Charter Act of 1813 set aside an annual sum for education of:
1. One crore rupees
2. Ten thousand rupees
3. Ten lakh rupees
4. One lakh rupees
Answer
D. One lakh rupees
It was the first government grant for education in India.
Macaulay's Minute on education was written in:
1. 1835
2. 1854
3. 1813
4. 1882
Answer
A. 1835
Macaulay's Minute is dated 1835.
Macaulay's policy favoured English as the medium for:
1. Only primary education
2. Only religious education
3. Only girls' education
4. Higher education
Answer
D. Higher education
English was to be the medium of higher education.
The 'downward filtration theory' means that:
1. Funds will go to villages first
2. Education will be free for all
3. Teachers will come from the poor
4. Education of the upper classes will filter down to the masses
Answer
D. Education of the upper classes will filter down to the masses
It was linked with Macaulay's policy.
Who asked Macaulay to give his opinion in the Orientalist-Anglicist controversy?
1. Lord William Bentinck
2. Lord Curzon
3. Lord Dalhousie
4. Lord Ripon
Answer
A. Lord William Bentinck
Bentinck, the Governor-General, accepted Macaulay's view in 1835.
Orientalists in the education debate wanted to:
1. Teach only English
2. Close all schools
3. Teach only crafts
4. Promote Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian learning
Answer
D. Promote Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian learning
Orientalists supported Indian classical languages.
Wood's Despatch was issued in:
1. 1929
2. 1835
3. 1854
4. 1882
Answer
C. 1854
Wood's Despatch is dated 1854.
Wood's Despatch is called the:
1. Charter of Basic education
2. Magna Carta of English education in India
3. Bible of vocational education
4. Blueprint of national policy
Answer
B. Magna Carta of English education in India
It laid out a complete plan of education.
Universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were set up in 1857 following:
1. Hartog Committee
2. Wood's Despatch
3. Hunter Commission
4. Sargent Report
Answer
B. Wood's Despatch
Wood's Despatch recommended these universities.
The grants-in-aid system was introduced on the recommendation of:
1. Wood's Despatch
2. Macaulay's Minute
3. Sargent Report
4. Wardha Scheme
Answer
A. Wood's Despatch
Wood's Despatch recommended grants to private schools.
A Department of Public Instruction in each province was recommended by:
1. Wardha Scheme
2. Hunter Commission
3. Wood's Despatch
4. Hartog Committee
Answer
C. Wood's Despatch
Each province was to have a Director of Public Instruction.
Charles Wood was:
1. Law Member
2. Governor of Madras
3. Viceroy
4. President of the Board of Control
Answer
D. President of the Board of Control
Wood was President of the Board of Control of the Company.
The Indian Education Commission of 1882 was headed by:
1. John Sargent
2. W.W. Hunter
3. Zakir Husain
4. Philip Hartog
Answer
B. W.W. Hunter
It is called the Hunter Commission.
The Hunter Commission was appointed during the viceroyalty of:
1. Lord Curzon
2. Lord Dalhousie
3. Lord Ripon
4. Lord Bentinck
Answer
C. Lord Ripon
Lord Ripon appointed the commission.
The Hunter Commission wanted primary education to be controlled by:
1. District and municipal boards
2. Universities
3. Missionaries
4. The central government
Answer
A. District and municipal boards
It recommended transferring primary education to local bodies.
The Hunter Commission suggested two divisions in secondary education:
1. Boys and girls
2. Public and private
3. Arts and science
4. Literary and vocational
Answer
D. Literary and vocational
One for university entry, one for vocational careers.
The Hartog Committee was set up in:
1. 1929
2. 1944
3. 1937
4. 1882
Answer
A. 1929
The Hartog Committee reported in 1929.
The Hartog Committee was an auxiliary committee of the:
1. Cabinet Mission
2. Simon Commission
3. Sadler Commission
4. Hunter Commission
Answer
B. Simon Commission
It was part of the Indian Statutory Commission's work.
Leaving school before completing the course is called:
1. Stagnation
2. Enrolment
3. Wastage
4. Retention
Answer
C. Wastage
Hartog studied wastage and stagnation.
Remaining in the same class for more than one year is called:
1. Wastage
2. Stagnation
3. Promotion
4. Transition
Answer
B. Stagnation
Stagnation means repeating a class.
The Hartog Committee recommended in primary education:
1. Rapid expansion
2. Abolition of primary schools
3. English medium for all
4. Consolidation rather than rapid expansion
Answer
D. Consolidation rather than rapid expansion
It stressed quality and care.
The Wardha Conference on Basic education was held in:
1. 1854
2. 1929
3. 1937
4. 1944
Answer
C. 1937
Gandhi presented Basic education in 1937.
Basic education is also known as:
1. Nai Talim
2. Purna Shiksha
3. Shramik Shiksha
4. Rashtriya Shiksha
Answer
A. Nai Talim
Nai Talim means new education.
The committee that worked out the Wardha Scheme was headed by:
1. Zakir Husain
2. Radhakrishnan
3. Kothari
4. Mudaliar
Answer
A. Zakir Husain
Zakir Husain led the committee.
In the Wardha Scheme the centre of teaching was:
1. Religious texts
2. Competitive exams
3. English literature
4. A basic craft
Answer
D. A basic craft
All subjects were linked with a craft.
The Wardha Scheme planned compulsory free education for:
1. Ten years
2. Seven years
3. Twelve years
4. Four years
Answer
B. Seven years
Ages 7 to 14.
The medium of instruction in the Wardha Scheme was the:
1. English
2. Persian
3. Sanskrit only
4. Mother tongue
Answer
D. Mother tongue
Gandhi insisted on the mother tongue.
The Sargent Report of 1944 was prepared for the:
1. NCERT
2. Planning Commission
3. Central Advisory Board of Education
4. University Grants Commission
Answer
C. Central Advisory Board of Education
The Sargent plan was a post-war plan for CABE.
The Sargent Report recommended free and compulsory education for the age group:
1. 6 to 14
2. 14 to 18
3. 5 to 10
4. 3 to 6
Answer
A. 6 to 14
Universal basic education for 6 to 14 years.
The Sargent plan recommended pre-primary education for the age group:
1. 11 to 14
2. 3 to 6
3. 6 to 11
4. 14 to 17
Answer
B. 3 to 6
Nursery education was for ages 3 to 6.
The Sargent plan recommended a university degree course of:
1. Five years
2. Seven years
3. Three years
4. One year
Answer
C. Three years
A three-year degree after high school.
Statements: 1. Macaulay's Minute supported English as medium for higher education. 2. Macaulay wanted to promote Sanskrit and Arabic. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Macaulay opposed spending on Oriental learning.
Statements: 1. Wood's Despatch recommended teacher training. 2. Wood's Despatch recommended women's education. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are recommendations of Wood's Despatch.
Statements: 1. The Hunter Commission reviewed university education mainly. 2. It gave priority to primary education. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
It dealt with primary and secondary levels, not mainly university.
Statements: 1. Hartog Committee dealt with wastage and stagnation. 2. It suggested consolidation of primary education. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are Hartog findings.
Statements: 1. The Wardha Scheme was craft-centred. 2. It aimed at English medium at the basic stage. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
The scheme used the mother tongue.
Statements: 1. The Sargent Report proposed basic education for ages 6 to 14. 2. It was a post-war educational plan. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Match the year with the body: 1882 -
1. Sargent Report
2. Hartog Committee
3. Wardha Conference
4. Hunter Commission
Answer
D. Hunter Commission
Hunter Commission was appointed in 1882.
Match the year with the body: 1929 -
1. Wood's Despatch
2. Hartog Committee
3. Zakir Husain Committee
4. Hunter Commission
Answer
B. Hartog Committee
Hartog Committee reported in 1929.
Which body is correctly paired with its main idea?
1. Hunter - ending primary education
2. Hartog - English medium for all
3. Sargent - ending the universities
4. Wardha - learning through craft
Answer
D. Wardha - learning through craft
Wardha Scheme was craft-centred; the other pairs are wrong.
Which of the following correctly places the bodies in order of time?
1. Hartog, Wood, Sargent, Hunter
2. Wood, Hunter, Hartog, Sargent
3. Hunter, Wood, Hartog, Sargent
4. Sargent, Hartog, Hunter, Wood
Answer
B. Wood, Hunter, Hartog, Sargent
1854, 1882, 1929, 1944.
A policy that gives English to the elite and expects knowledge to reach the masses later is based on:
1. Downward filtration
2. Neighbourhood school
3. Grants-in-aid
4. Learning by doing
Answer
A. Downward filtration
This is the downward filtration theory.
The principle of 'learning by doing' in a craft context belongs to:
1. Macaulay's Minute
2. The Hunter Commission
3. The Hartog Committee
4. The Wardha Scheme
Answer
D. The Wardha Scheme
Craft-centred activity learning was Gandhi's idea.
Which idea in the Wood's Despatch supports private effort in education?
1. Wastage control
2. Downward filtration
3. Wardha craft
4. Grants-in-aid
Answer
D. Grants-in-aid
Grants helped private schools run on conditions.
The Hartog Committee's concern about children leaving school early reflects a concern for:
1. Retention of children
2. Higher fees
3. English teaching
4. Sports
Answer
A. Retention of children
Wastage means early dropout.

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