Perspectives in Education and Education Policy · Chapter 3

Post-Independence Education Commissions and Policies

What to remember

After 1947 India appointed commissions at each level: Radhakrishnan (university, 1948-49), Mudaliar (secondary, 1952-53), Kothari (whole system, 1964-66), then the policies of 1968, 1986 and the Programme of Action 1992.
The Kothari Commission gave the 10+2+3 structure and linked education with national development.
For exams, learn each body's year, chairperson and key recommendation in a table.

University Education Commission (1948-49)

Dr S. Radhakrishnan chaired this first post-independence commission. It looked at university education only.

Aims of university education: to give leaders in all fields, to develop wisdom and character, and to promote national unity.
Suggested a three-year first degree after twelve years of school, and raising standards of teaching and examination.
Recommended rural universities, better pay for teachers, and moral and religious (spiritual) instruction without any one religion being forced.
Recommended that the University Grants Commission (UGC) be set up for the funding and coordination of universities. The UGC was formed in the 1950s.

Secondary Education Commission (1952-53), the Mudaliar Commission

Dr A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar chaired this commission, called the *Secondary Education Commission*.

Recommendations:

Aims: democratic citizenship, vocational efficiency, leadership, and development of personality.
School education to have primary (junior basic), middle (junior secondary) and higher secondary stages. The higher secondary stage was to be of four years, followed by a three-year first degree course.
*Diversified courses* in the higher secondary stage (humanities, science, technical, commerce, agriculture, fine arts, home science), taught in *multipurpose schools*.
Mother tongue or regional language as the medium of instruction; at least two languages to be studied at the high school stage (the three-language formula came later, from CABE 1956-61 and Kothari).
A general-education core with craft and work experience.
Reform of examinations: more internal assessment, fewer external exams, objective tests and cumulative records.
Improved teacher training, better pay and guidance and counselling services.
Reform of text books and encouragement of co-curricular activities.

Education Commission (1964-66), the Kothari Commission

Dr D.S. Kothari, then chairman of the UGC, led this commission. Its report was titled *Education and National Development*. Its famous opening line says that the destiny of India is being shaped in her classrooms. It covered all stages of education.

Key recommendations:

The *10+2+3* pattern of education: ten years of general schooling, two years of higher secondary, and three years for a first degree. (A common structure was to be adopted across the country.)
Education should be linked to productivity: *work experience* (later called Socially Useful Productive Work), science education, and vocationalisation at the secondary stage.
A *common school system* and *neighbourhood schools* to promote equality and national integration.
Three-language formula: mother tongue/regional language, Hindi and English.
Free and compulsory education up to age 14 as per the Constitution's Directive Principle.
Better teachers: improved pay, training and status.
Equalisation of educational opportunity for girls, backward classes and tribal groups.
Greater public spending on education: a target of about 6 per cent of national income.
Promotion of adult education, universities with higher standards and agricultural education.
Moral and social values in education.

The Kothari report formed the basis of the *National Policy on Education 1968*, the first national policy.

Ishwarbhai Patel Committee (1977)

The Review Committee on the Curriculum for the 10-year school (*The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School*) was chaired by Ishwarbhai J. Patel.

It reviewed the 10+2 curriculum and suggested making school curricula less burdensome and more related to life.
It stressed work experience and community service (SUPW) as an integral part of schooling, and a common core of general education.
It suggested that the curriculum should be flexible and meet local needs.

National Policy on Education 1986 (NPE 1986)

Brought in by the government headed by Rajiv Gandhi. The key idea was a *National System of Education*, with a common core and equal access to quality.

Main features:

*Common core curriculum* with local flexibility, including the history of the freedom movement, constitutional obligations and values of national identity.
*Operation Blackboard* to give minimum facilities (two rooms, two teachers, teaching aids) to primary schools.
*Navodaya Vidyalayas* (Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas): residential, co-educational schools for talented rural children, free of cost.
*Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL)* to be fixed at each stage.
Child-centred approach for the primary stage.
*Open University and distance education*; Indira Gandhi National Open University was set up in 1985.
Rural universities and Institutions such as the *District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET)* for quality in elementary education.
Special focus on education for women's equality, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, minorities and the disabled.
Vocationalisation at the secondary stage and technical education.
Aim to spend about 6 per cent of national income on education.
Strengthening of the NCERT and State Councils, and the national testing and evaluation reforms.
Non-formal education for children outside school.

Review and Programme of Action 1992 (POA 1992)

After a change of government, a review of NPE 1986 was done by a committee headed by Acharya Ramamurti (1990). Another committee, under N. Janardhana Reddy, looked at modifications. The *Revised National Policy on Education (1992)* followed, and the *Programme of Action (POA) 1992* gave the plan of implementation.

Key points of POA 1992:

Emphasis on universal elementary education: access, enrolment, retention and quality.
Continuing Operation Blackboard and the use of Minimum Levels of Learning.
Common entrance examinations for professional and technical courses on a national basis.
Continuation of Navodaya Vidyalayas, DIETs and open learning.
Plans for adult education, women's education and education of disadvantaged groups.
Strengthening of the 10+2+3 structure and vocational courses.
Emphasis on a child-centred approach and removing the burden of school.

Summary table: year, body and recommendation

Year	Commission or policy	Head	Main recommendation
1948-49	University Education Commission	S. Radhakrishnan	University aims; three-year degree; rural universities
1952-53	Secondary Education Commission	A.L. Mudaliar	Diversified courses; multipurpose schools; mother tongue as medium
1964-66	Education Commission	D.S. Kothari	10+2+3; work experience; common school; neighbourhood school
1968	NPE 1968	Based on Kothari	First national policy; three-language formula
1977	Curriculum review committee	Ishwarbhai Patel	Work experience; less burdensome curriculum
1986	NPE 1986	Government of India	National system; Operation Blackboard; Navodaya; MLL
1992	Revised NPE and POA	Ramamurti and Janardhana Reddy Committees (review)	Plan for implementing NPE; common entrance

Comparison of Mudaliar and Kothari

Point	Mudaliar	Kothari
Level	Secondary only	Whole system
Structure	Four-year higher secondary stage; three-year degree	10+2+3
Idea	Multipurpose schools and diversified courses	Work experience; common school; vocationalisation

Teaching angle

Many classroom practices come from these reports: continuous internal assessment (Mudaliar), work experience and SUPW (Kothari, Patel), Operation Blackboard facilities, DIETs for teacher training, MLL, and a child-centred, activity-based primary stage (NPE 1986).

Constitutional link and later steps

The Constitution's Directive Principle on free and compulsory education for children up to fourteen shaped these reports. The Education Commission and the 1968 policy stressed that education is a national investment. Education was placed on the Concurrent List by the 42nd Amendment (1976), which made the Centre and the States share responsibility. Later, the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act 2002 added the Right to Education as a Fundamental Right for ages 6 to 14 (Article 21A), and the RTE Act 2009 gave it effect. Programmes such as the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) followed the 1986 and 1992 plans to improve primary schooling.

Exam traps

Radhakrishnan vs Mudaliar: Radhakrishnan = university; Mudaliar = secondary.
Mudaliar vs Kothari: Mudaliar = multipurpose schools; Kothari = 10+2+3 and common school system.
Kothari vs NPE 1968: the commission gave a report; NPE 1968 was the policy based on it.
NPE 1986 vs POA 1992: NPE = the policy; POA = the plan to implement it.
Operation Blackboard vs Navodaya: minimum facilities in primary schools vs residential schools for talented rural children.
MLL vs the common core: MLL = minimum learning outcomes; the common core = shared content of the curriculum.
Ishwarbhai Patel vs Kothari: Patel dealt with school curriculum; Kothari dealt with the whole system.
DIET vs NCERT: DIET = district level training institute; NCERT = national body.

One-liners

1. The University Education Commission (1948-49) was headed by Dr S. Radhakrishnan.
2. The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) was headed by A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar.
3. The Mudaliar Commission recommended multipurpose schools.
4. The Kothari Commission's report is titled Education and National Development.
5. The Kothari Commission recommended the 10+2+3 structure.
6. NPE 1968 was based on the Kothari Commission.
7. The Ishwarbhai Patel Committee reviewed the school curriculum in 1977.
8. NPE 1986 introduced Operation Blackboard.
9. NPE 1986 started Navodaya Vidyalayas for talented rural children.
10. Minimum Levels of Learning were linked with NPE 1986 and its Programme of Action.
11. The Programme of Action 1992 followed the review of NPE 1986.
12. DIETs were created to improve elementary teacher education.

Practice questions

The first post-independence commission on university education was headed by:
1. Ishwarbhai Patel
2. D.S. Kothari
3. S. Radhakrishnan
4. A.L. Mudaliar
Answer
C. S. Radhakrishnan
The University Education Commission (1948-49) was chaired by Radhakrishnan.
The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) was headed by:
1. S. Radhakrishnan
2. A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar
3. D.S. Kothari
4. Zakir Husain
Answer
B. A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar
It is also called the Mudaliar Commission.
Multipurpose schools were recommended by the:
1. Mudaliar Commission
2. Ishwarbhai Patel Committee
3. Hunter Commission
4. Kothari Commission
Answer
A. Mudaliar Commission
They offered diversified courses at the higher secondary stage.
The Kothari Commission was appointed in:
1. 1977
2. 1986
3. 1948
4. 1964
Answer
D. 1964
The Education Commission worked in 1964-66.
The report of the Kothari Commission is titled:
1. Challenge of Education
2. Learning to Be
3. Education and National Development
4. The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School
Answer
C. Education and National Development
That is the title of the report.
The 10+2+3 pattern of education was recommended by the:
1. Mudaliar Commission
2. Kothari Commission
3. Radhakrishnan Commission
4. Hartog Committee
Answer
B. Kothari Commission
The Kothari Commission recommended a common 10+2+3 structure.
The first National Policy on Education (1968) was based on the report of the:
1. Kothari Commission
2. Sargent Report
3. Radhakrishnan Commission
4. Mudaliar Commission
Answer
A. Kothari Commission
NPE 1968 followed the Kothari report.
The Kothari Commission recommended work experience, later called:
1. Craft Centred Learning
2. Community Exams
3. Basic Skills Test
4. Socially Useful Productive Work
Answer
D. Socially Useful Productive Work
SUPW grew out of the work experience idea.
A 'neighbourhood school' within the common school system was recommended by the:
1. Wood's Despatch
2. Mudaliar Commission
3. Kothari Commission
4. Hartog Committee
Answer
C. Kothari Commission
It aimed at equality and integration.
The three-language formula suggests learning:
1. Mother tongue/regional language, Hindi and English
2. Hindi, Sanskrit and Urdu
3. English, French and German
4. Three regional languages only
Answer
A. Mother tongue/regional language, Hindi and English
The formula was recommended by the commissions and NPE 1968.
The Ishwarbhai Patel Committee (1977) mainly reviewed:
1. Adult education
2. The school curriculum
3. Teacher salary
4. University finance
Answer
B. The school curriculum
It reviewed the curriculum for the ten-year school.
The Ishwarbhai Patel Committee stressed:
1. Only examinations
2. Work experience and community service in schooling
3. English medium
4. Religious teaching
Answer
B. Work experience and community service in schooling
It stressed practical, life-related education.
NPE 1986 aimed at creating a:
1. Private school system
2. National System of Education
3. State-only education
4. Religion-based education
Answer
B. National System of Education
A common core and equal access to quality was the aim.
Operation Blackboard was a scheme to:
1. Open universities
2. Provide meals to children
3. Provide minimum facilities to primary schools
4. Train adults
Answer
C. Provide minimum facilities to primary schools
It supplied rooms, teachers and teaching aids.
Navodaya Vidyalayas were started under:
1. Wood's Despatch
2. The Wardha Scheme
3. NPE 1968
4. NPE 1986
Answer
D. NPE 1986
They are residential schools for talented rural children.
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas mainly serve:
1. Only urban children
2. Only defence families
3. Talented rural children
4. Foreign students
Answer
C. Talented rural children
Free residential schools for talented rural children.
Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) are meant to:
1. Set teacher salaries
2. Fix school timings
3. Decide fees
4. Define the basic learning outcomes at each stage
Answer
D. Define the basic learning outcomes at each stage
MLL fix minimum attainments in each stage.
Indira Gandhi National Open University was set up in:
1. 1985
2. 1948
3. 1964
4. 2009
Answer
A. 1985
IGNOU was established in 1985 and linked with NPE 1986's open learning aim.
District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET) aim to improve:
1. University research
2. Sports
3. Adult literacy only
4. Elementary teacher education
Answer
D. Elementary teacher education
DIETs support elementary education quality.
The Programme of Action 1992 was:
1. The Hunter report
2. A new university
3. The plan to implement the revised NPE
4. The Wardha Scheme
Answer
C. The plan to implement the revised NPE
POA gave the implementation plan.
The review committee on NPE 1986 in 1990 was headed by:
1. D.S. Kothari
2. Acharya Ramamurti
3. A.L. Mudaliar
4. Ishwarbhai Patel
Answer
B. Acharya Ramamurti
The Ramamurti Committee reviewed NPE 1986.
The target of public spending for education suggested by the Kothari Commission was about:
1. 6 per cent of national income
2. 20 per cent of national income
3. 50 per cent of national income
4. 1 per cent of national income
Answer
A. 6 per cent of national income
It recommended about 6 per cent of national income.
Statements: 1. The Radhakrishnan Commission studied university education. 2. The Mudaliar Commission studied secondary education. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Statements: 1. The Kothari Commission covered the whole education system. 2. It recommended the 10+2+3 pattern. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Statements: 1. NPE 1986 introduced Operation Blackboard. 2. The Programme of Action was the plan to implement NPE. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both statements are correct.
Statements: 1. The Mudaliar Commission recommended diversified courses. 2. The Mudaliar Commission recommended a three-year first degree. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are Mudaliar recommendations.
Statements: 1. NPE 1968 came before NPE 1986. 2. NPE 1968 was based on the Kothari Commission. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Statements: 1. Navodaya Vidyalayas are for urban elite children. 2. DIETs deal with elementary teacher education. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Navodaya schools serve talented rural children.
Statements: 1. The Kothari Commission recommended the common school system. 2. It rejected any link between education and productivity. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
The commission strongly linked education with productivity.
The University Education Commission worked during:
1. 1964-66
2. 1952-53
3. 1977
4. 1948-49
Answer
D. 1948-49
The University Education Commission worked in 1948-49.
The Secondary Education Commission worked during:
1. 1952-53
2. 1964-66
3. 1948-49
4. 1986
Answer
A. 1952-53
The Secondary Education Commission worked in 1952-53.
Which pair is correctly matched?
1. Patel - Operation Blackboard
2. Mudaliar - University education
3. Radhakrishnan - Navodaya
4. Kothari - 10+2+3
Answer
D. Kothari - 10+2+3
Only Kothari - 10+2+3 is correct.
Which is the correct order in time?
1. Patel, Kothari, Mudaliar, Radhakrishnan
2. Radhakrishnan, Mudaliar, Kothari, Patel
3. Mudaliar, Radhakrishnan, Patel, Kothari
4. Kothari, Mudaliar, Radhakrishnan, Patel
Answer
B. Radhakrishnan, Mudaliar, Kothari, Patel
1948, 1952, 1964, 1977.
Which recommendation is NOT from the Kothari Commission?
1. Work experience
2. Craft-centred education for seven years from Gandhi's plan
3. 10+2+3 structure
4. Neighbourhood schools
Answer
B. Craft-centred education for seven years from Gandhi's plan
The craft-centred seven-year plan belongs to the Wardha Scheme.
The idea of multipurpose schools mainly aims at:
1. Teaching only one subject
2. Offering many types of courses in one school
3. Closing schools
4. Reducing the number of teachers
Answer
B. Offering many types of courses in one school
Multipurpose schools offer diversified courses.
Operation Blackboard minimum facilities included:
1. Two rooms and two teachers
2. A computer lab
3. A swimming pool
4. A hostel
Answer
A. Two rooms and two teachers
Minimum facilities for primary schools were the target.
A teacher uses SUPW activities such as gardening. This follows an idea from:
1. Hartog Committee
2. Wood's Despatch
3. Hunter Commission
4. Kothari Commission
Answer
D. Kothari Commission
Work experience was recommended by the Kothari Commission.
Continuous internal assessment instead of only an external exam was stressed first by the:
1. Mudaliar Commission
2. Charter Act 1813
3. Hartog Committee
4. Hunter Commission
Answer
A. Mudaliar Commission
The Mudaliar Commission recommended internal assessment and cumulative records.
Which policy talks about a 'common core' with local flexibility?
1. NPE 1968 only
2. Wood's Despatch
3. NPE 1986
4. Hartog report
Answer
C. NPE 1986
NPE 1986 stressed a common core curriculum.
Free and compulsory education to age 14 is a:
1. Fundamental Right in the original Constitution
2. Provision of Wood's Despatch
3. Directive Principle in the original Constitution
4. Provision of NPE 1986 only
Answer
C. Directive Principle in the original Constitution
It was a Directive Principle, later made a right by Article 21A.
Article 21A of the Constitution provides:
1. Free higher education
2. Education for all adults
3. Free meals
4. Free and compulsory education to children aged 6 to 14
Answer
D. Free and compulsory education to children aged 6 to 14
Article 21A was added by the 86th Amendment.
Which body gave the Programme of Action to support NPE 1986 implementation after the review?
1. Hunter Commission
2. POA 1992
3. Mudaliar Commission
4. Kothari Commission
Answer
B. POA 1992
POA 1992 followed the review of NPE.
The aim of 'leaders in all fields' and 'national unity' as aims of university education were stated by the:
1. Hunter Commission
2. Hartog Committee
3. Wardha Conference
4. Radhakrishnan Commission
Answer
D. Radhakrishnan Commission
These were aims of university education in the 1948-49 report.
Which commission's report opens with the idea that India's destiny is being shaped in her classrooms?
1. Kothari Commission
2. Hunter Commission
3. Mudaliar Commission
4. Hartog Committee
Answer
A. Kothari Commission
The Kothari report, Education and National Development, begins with this idea.
Statements: 1. The Ishwarbhai Patel Committee reviewed the school curriculum. 2. The Radhakrishnan Commission reviewed the school curriculum. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Radhakrishnan dealt with university education.

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