Teaching Science: Methodology (Physical and Biological) · Chapter 1

Nature and Structure of Science, and Great Scientists

What to remember

Science is both a body of knowledge (product) and a way of finding it (process), guided by a scientific attitude. A good science teacher teaches all three, not only facts.
Science is tentative, testable, cumulative and universal. Its structure has facts at the base, then concepts, principles, laws and theories above them.
Aryabhata, Bhaskaracharya, Newton, Einstein and C.V. Raman show how ideas grow over centuries. Each one added a new idea, a method or a discovery that later scientists built upon.

Meaning and nature of science

The word "science" comes from the Latin word *scientia*, which means "knowledge". In school, science means organised knowledge of nature that is gained by observation, experiment and reasoning.

Science can be seen in three ways:

Science as a product: facts, concepts, principles, laws and theories that are written in books.
Science as a process: the steps by which knowledge is found, such as observing, measuring, classifying, inferring, predicting and experimenting.
Science as an attitude: the habits of mind of a scientist, such as curiosity and honesty.

Main characteristics of science:

1. It is systematic: knowledge is arranged in an order.
2. It is objective: the result does not depend on the likes of a person.
3. It is verifiable: anyone can repeat the experiment and check.
4. It is tentative: a theory can change when new evidence comes.
5. It is cumulative: new knowledge is added on old knowledge.
6. It is universal: the same law works in every place.
7. It gives prediction: it helps us say what will happen under given conditions.

Science is not the same as technology. Science tries to understand nature, while technology uses that understanding to make tools and solve problems. Science is also different from pseudoscience (such as astrology), because pseudoscience cannot be tested and does not change when evidence goes against it.

Structure of science

The structure of science has two parts.

Substantive structure: the content, that is, facts, concepts, principles, laws and theories.
Syntactic structure: the methods and rules by which scientists get and test knowledge, such as hypothesis, experiment and proof.

Level	Meaning	Example
Fact	A truth found by direct observation	Ice floats on water
Concept	An idea formed by grouping facts	Density
Principle	A statement that links concepts	Archimedes' principle
Law	A principle that is true always and has no known exception	Newton's laws of motion
Theory	A well-tested explanation of many facts	Theory of relativity
Hypothesis	A trial answer that is yet to be tested	"Plants grow faster in light"

A hypothesis becomes a theory only after many tests. A theory does not become a "law" by getting more proof; they are different kinds of statements. A law describes what happens, while a theory explains why it happens.

Scientific attitude and process skills

Scientific attitude has these parts: curiosity, open-mindedness, critical thinking, objectivity, honesty in reporting data, suspended judgement (not deciding before evidence), respect for evidence, rational thinking (no belief in superstition) and willingness to change opinion.

Basic process skills (used in primary classes): observing, classifying, measuring, using numbers, inferring, predicting and communicating.

Integrated process skills (used in higher classes): controlling variables, forming hypotheses, defining terms by operations, experimenting and interpreting data.

A teacher should let children do activities, so that the skills grow by practice.

History of science: Indian scientists

Aryabhata (born c. 476 CE)

He wrote the *Aryabhatiya* (c. 499 CE), which has parts on mathematics and astronomy.
He said that the Earth rotates on its axis, and that the apparent daily motion of stars is due to this rotation.
He explained that eclipses are caused by shadows of the Earth and the Moon, and not by demons.
He gave a close value of pi (about 3.1416) and used a place-value system with a way of showing zero.
He worked on sine tables and on the area of a triangle.
India's first satellite (launched in 1975) was named after him.

Bhaskaracharya (Bhaskara II, born c. 1114 CE)

His main work is the *Siddhanta Shiromani*, which has four parts: *Lilavati* (arithmetic), *Bijaganita* (algebra), *Grahaganita* (planets) and *Goladhyaya* (sphere and astronomy).
*Lilavati* is a famous book of arithmetic problems written in verse.
He worked with ideas close to differential calculus, such as instantaneous motion of planets.
He knew that the Earth has a pulling power on objects.
He gave rules for dividing by zero as infinity, and he solved some equations with whole-number answers.

Other early Indian scientists that a teacher should know by name: Charaka and Sushruta (medicine and surgery), Brahmagupta (mathematics with rules for zero), Varahamihira (astronomy) and Kanada (an early idea of atoms).

History of science: world scientists

Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

English scientist who wrote the *Principia* (1687).
He gave the three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.
He worked out ideas of calculus (along with Leibniz, who developed it separately).
He showed that white light is made of many colours, and he built a reflecting telescope.
His book on light is called *Opticks*.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

German-born physicist.
He gave the special theory of relativity (1905) and the general theory of relativity (1915).
He gave the mass-energy relation E = mc².
He explained the photoelectric effect and received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for it, not for relativity.

C.V. Raman (1888-1970)

Born in Tiruchirappalli. He worked in Calcutta and later in Bengaluru, where he founded the Raman Research Institute.
He discovered that light changes its wavelength when it is scattered by a transparent substance. This is the Raman effect (announced in 1928).
He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930. He was the first Asian to get a Nobel Prize in a science subject.
National Science Day is celebrated every year on 28 February to mark the announcement of the discovery.
He also studied the sound of musical instruments such as the violin and the tabla, and the colour of the sky and the sea.

Scientist	Period	Key contribution
Aryabhata	c. 5th century CE	Earth's rotation, eclipse reason, Aryabhatiya
Bhaskaracharya	c. 12th century CE	Siddhanta Shiromani, Lilavati
Newton	1643-1727	Laws of motion, gravitation
Einstein	1879-1955	Relativity, E = mc², photoelectric effect
C.V. Raman	1888-1970	Raman effect, Nobel Prize 1930

Branches and scope of science

Science is first divided into natural science (physical science and biological science) and social science. Physical science includes physics, chemistry, astronomy and earth science. Biological science includes botany, zoology, microbiology and ecology. In school, "General Science" joins these into one subject up to the lower secondary stage, and later the subjects are taught separately.

Science grows by a cycle: observation, question, hypothesis, experiment, result, theory, and new questions. Every answer opens new questions, so the work of science never finishes. Scientists also share results through journals and conferences, and other scientists check them. This checking by others is called peer review and it keeps science honest.

Science depends on a few basic beliefs: nature follows order, events have natural causes, and the same cause gives the same effect under the same conditions. These beliefs let us make laws and predictions.

Classroom angle

Tell the life stories of scientists to build interest and to show that science is a human effort.
Show that scientists often failed many times before they succeeded. This teaches patience.
Use the history of science to teach that knowledge changes. For example, ideas on the structure of atoms have changed several times.
Let children do small investigations, so that they live the process of science.

Why the history of science matters to a teacher

Pupils often think that science is a closed set of facts. The stories of Aryabhata, Bhaskaracharya, Newton, Einstein and Raman show that every discovery started with a question, was tested by others and was later improved. A teacher can ask pupils to find one idea of each scientist that is still used today, such as the place-value system, the laws of motion or the study of light scattering. This builds respect for the work of earlier scientists and shows that Indian scientists have given a great deal to world knowledge.

Exam traps

1. Product vs process: laws and theories are the product; observing and experimenting are the process.
2. Law vs theory: a theory does not turn into a law. A law tells "what", a theory tells "why".
3. Hypothesis vs theory: a hypothesis is untested; a theory is well tested.
4. Science vs technology: science is understanding; technology is application.
5. Einstein's Nobel Prize was for the photoelectric effect, not for relativity.
6. Raman effect is about scattering of light, not about the bending of light (refraction) or the splitting of light.
7. Lilavati is a part of the *Siddhanta Shiromani* and is on arithmetic; algebra is *Bijaganita*.
8. Substantive vs syntactic structure: substantive is content; syntactic is method.

One-liners

1. "Science" comes from the Latin word *scientia*, meaning knowledge.
2. Science has two structures: substantive and syntactic.
3. A hypothesis is a trial answer that is yet to be tested.
4. A scientific attitude includes curiosity, open-mindedness and objectivity.
5. Aryabhata wrote the *Aryabhatiya*.
6. Aryabhata said that the Earth rotates on its axis.
7. Bhaskaracharya wrote the *Siddhanta Shiromani*.
8. *Lilavati* deals with arithmetic problems in verse.
9. Newton's *Principia* was published in 1687.
10. Einstein gave E = mc².
11. C.V. Raman won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930.
12. National Science Day is on 28 February.

Practice questions

The word 'science' comes from the Latin word 'scientia', which means
1. experiment
2. nature
3. knowledge
4. observation
Answer
C. knowledge
Scientia means knowledge.
The Aryabhatiya was written by
1. Brahmagupta
2. Varahamihira
3. Bhaskaracharya
4. Aryabhata
Answer
D. Aryabhata
Aryabhata wrote the Aryabhatiya.
The Siddhanta Shiromani was written by
1. Sushruta
2. Bhaskaracharya
3. Aryabhata
4. Charaka
Answer
B. Bhaskaracharya
Bhaskaracharya (Bhaskara II) wrote it.
Lilavati, a part of the Siddhanta Shiromani, deals mainly with
1. arithmetic
2. the motion of planets
3. algebra
4. the study of the sphere
Answer
A. arithmetic
Lilavati is the arithmetic part; Bijaganita is algebra.
The law of universal gravitation was given by
1. C.V. Raman
2. Isaac Newton
3. Aryabhata
4. Albert Einstein
Answer
B. Isaac Newton
Newton's Principia gave the law of gravitation.
Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the
1. photoelectric effect
2. special theory of relativity
3. scattering of light
4. law of gravitation
Answer
A. photoelectric effect
The prize was for the photoelectric effect.
The Raman effect is related to the
1. refraction of light
2. reflection of light
3. dispersion of light into colours
4. scattering of light
Answer
D. scattering of light
Raman effect is the change in wavelength of scattered light.
National Science Day in India is observed on
1. 5 September
2. 15 August
3. 28 February
4. 11 May
Answer
C. 28 February
It marks the announcement of the Raman effect.
India's first satellite was named after
1. Bhaskaracharya
2. C.V. Raman
3. Aryabhata
4. Newton
Answer
C. Aryabhata
The satellite Aryabhata was launched in 1975.
Which one of the following is the substantive structure of science?
1. Curiosity and honesty
2. Facts, concepts and principles
3. Hypothesis testing and experiment
4. Observation and measurement skills
Answer
B. Facts, concepts and principles
Substantive structure is the content; syntactic structure is the method.
A hypothesis is best described as
1. a theory that is fully proved
2. a fact seen by all
3. a law which has no exception
4. a trial answer that is yet to be tested
Answer
D. a trial answer that is yet to be tested
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation to be tested.
The special theory of relativity was proposed by
1. Einstein
2. Newton
3. Raman
4. Bhaskaracharya
Answer
A. Einstein
Einstein gave special relativity in 1905.
Bijaganita, a work of Bhaskaracharya, is a book on
1. medicine
2. arithmetic
3. algebra
4. astronomy of planets
Answer
C. algebra
Bijaganita means the science of algebra.
C.V. Raman received the Nobel Prize in the field of
1. Physics
2. Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Peace
Answer
A. Physics
He won the Physics prize in 1930.
The reflecting telescope was built by
1. Einstein
2. Raman
3. Aryabhata
4. Newton
Answer
D. Newton
Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope.
The mass-energy relation E = mc² was given by
1. Raman
2. Einstein
3. Bhaskaracharya
4. Newton
Answer
B. Einstein
E = mc² comes from relativity theory.
The ancient Indian physician known for surgery is
1. Varahamihira
2. Aryabhata
3. Kanada
4. Sushruta
Answer
D. Sushruta
Sushruta is known as an early surgeon.
Newton's book that deals with light and colours is called
1. Lilavati
2. Aryabhatiya
3. Opticks
4. Principia
Answer
C. Opticks
Opticks deals with light; Principia with motion and gravitation.
A pupil repeats a classmate's experiment and gets the same result. This shows that scientific knowledge is
1. verifiable
2. unchangeable
3. tentative
4. subjective
Answer
A. verifiable
Verifiable means anyone can repeat the test and check.
A teacher asks pupils to measure, classify and infer from a set of leaves. The teacher is treating science mainly as a
1. product
2. process
3. belief
4. technology
Answer
B. process
Measuring, classifying and inferring are process skills.
A well-tested explanation that links many facts is called a
1. hypothesis
2. fact
3. guess
4. theory
Answer
D. theory
A theory explains why; a hypothesis is untested.
A pupil refuses to accept a rumour until it is tested. This shows the attitude of
1. suspended judgement
2. blind faith
3. fear of change
4. narrow thinking
Answer
A. suspended judgement
Suspended judgement means waiting for evidence.
Making a water purifier using knowledge of filtration is an example of
1. a scientific law
2. technology
3. a hypothesis
4. pure science
Answer
B. technology
Technology applies science to solve problems.
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of science?
1. It is universal
2. It is verifiable
3. It depends on personal belief
4. It is cumulative
Answer
C. It depends on personal belief
Science is objective, not based on personal belief.
A pupil sees a leaf turn yellow and says, 'The plant did not get enough water.' This step is
1. a measurement
2. a classification
3. an observation
4. an inference
Answer
D. an inference
Giving a reason from an observation is inference.
Astrology is called a pseudoscience mainly because it
1. cannot be tested and does not change with evidence
2. uses mathematics
3. is liked by many people
4. is very old
Answer
A. cannot be tested and does not change with evidence
Pseudoscience resists testing and correction.
Aryabhata explained that eclipses are caused by
1. a demon swallowing the Sun
2. the shadows of the Earth and the Moon
3. the Sun losing its light
4. clouds covering the Sun
Answer
B. the shadows of the Earth and the Moon
He gave a natural, shadow-based cause for eclipses.
'A law tells what happens, a theory tells why it happens.' Which of these is a law?
1. Atomic theory
2. Theory of relativity
3. Newton's law of motion
4. A hypothesis on plant growth
Answer
C. Newton's law of motion
Newton's laws describe how objects move.
Controlling variables in an experiment is classed as an
1. basic process skill
2. integrated process skill
3. scientific law
4. technology
Answer
B. integrated process skill
Integrated skills include controlling variables and experimenting.
'The same laws of nature work in every place' shows that science is
1. local
2. tentative
3. subjective
4. universal
Answer
D. universal
Universality means laws are the same everywhere.
Telling the life stories of scientists in the class mainly helps to show that science is
1. a human effort which changes over time
2. a fixed set of facts
3. meant only for geniuses
4. free from mistakes
Answer
A. a human effort which changes over time
History of science builds interest and shows change.
Consider the statements about Einstein and Raman. 1. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics for the theory of relativity. 2. C.V. Raman was the first Asian to receive a Nobel Prize in a science subject. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Einstein's prize was for the photoelectric effect; Raman was the first Asian science laureate.
Consider the statements about the nature of science. 1. A hypothesis becomes a theory after it passes many tests. 2. A law is the same thing as a fact seen by direct observation. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
A fact is seen directly; a law is a general statement that always holds.
Consider the statements about Bhaskaracharya. 1. Lilavati is a part of the Siddhanta Shiromani. 2. Bijaganita is the part on arithmetic. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Bijaganita is algebra; Lilavati is arithmetic.
Consider the statements about science teaching. 1. Science as a product means the facts, laws and theories. 2. Science as a process means the methods used to find knowledge. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both statements describe product and process correctly.
Consider the statements about the Aryabhatiya. 1. It says that the Earth rotates on its axis. 2. It was written by Bhaskaracharya. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Aryabhata wrote it and held that the Earth rotates.
Consider the statements about Newton. 1. He wrote the Principia. 2. He gave the special theory of relativity. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Relativity is Einstein's theory.
Consider the statements about science and technology. 1. Science aims at understanding nature. 2. Technology uses scientific knowledge to make tools. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct and show the difference.
Consider the statements about the scientific attitude. 1. Open-mindedness means being ready to change an opinion when evidence changes. 2. Objectivity means taking decisions on the basis of personal feelings. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Objectivity means basing decisions on evidence.
Consider the statements about the structure of science. 1. Substantive structure refers to the methods of enquiry. 2. Syntactic structure refers to the content of science. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Substantive is content; syntactic is method, so both statements are reversed.
Consider the statements about the Raman effect. 1. It was discovered while studying the scattering of light by liquids. 2. It concerns the change in wavelength of scattered light. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Match the scientist with the work: (A) Aryabhata (B) Bhaskaracharya (C) Newton (D) Einstein; (1) Principia (2) Lilavati (3) Aryabhatiya (4) E = mc²
1. A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
2. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
3. A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4
4. A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
Answer
D. A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
Aryabhatiya - Aryabhata; Lilavati - Bhaskaracharya; Principia - Newton; E = mc² - Einstein.
Match the term with its meaning: (A) Fact (B) Concept (C) Hypothesis (D) Theory; (1) trial answer (2) idea formed by grouping facts (3) well-tested explanation (4) direct observation
1. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
2. A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
3. A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
4. A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1
Answer
B. A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
Fact is directly observed, concept groups facts, hypothesis is a trial answer, theory is well tested.
Match the scientist with the area: (A) Charaka (B) Brahmagupta (C) Varahamihira (D) Sushruta; (1) astronomy (2) surgery (3) medicine (4) rules for zero
1. A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1
2. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
3. A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
4. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
Answer
D. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
Charaka - medicine; Brahmagupta - zero rules; Varahamihira - astronomy; Sushruta - surgery.
Match the skill with its example: (A) Observing (B) Classifying (C) Predicting (D) Communicating; (1) grouping plants as herbs and shrubs (2) noting the colour of a flame (3) writing a report (4) saying what will happen when ice is heated
1. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
2. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
3. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
4. A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
Answer
C. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
Observing - colour of flame; classifying - grouping plants; predicting - ice heated; communicating - report.

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1.The speed of sound depends primarily on the nature and ____________ of the medium.
2.The system of scientific naming or nomenclature of organism which we use today was introduced by which of the following scientists?
3.The radius of curvature of any mirror is +20 cm. What is the focal length and nature of this mirror?
4.Through which of the following ways can scientists incorporate desirable characters into crop varieties?
5.The two isotopic forms of chlorine, with masses 35 u and 37 u, are found in which of the following ratios in nature?
6.The greatest number, which divides 2248 and 1761 to leave 3 and 1 respectively as remainders, is:
7.The greatest quantity of air that can be expelled after a maximum inspiratory effect is-
8.The nature of the bond formed in aliphatic carbon compounds is:
9.The nature of ________ is electro-positive.
10.The nature of an image formed by a concave mirror when an object is kept at the position between the principal focus and the pole of the mirror is _________.

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