Teaching Science: Methodology (Physical and Biological) · Chapter 2

Aims, Values, Correlation, Objectives, Bloom's Taxonomy and Academic Standards

What to remember

Aims are broad and long-term; objectives are narrow, short-term and measurable. Aims guide the whole programme, while objectives guide a single lesson.
Bloom's taxonomy has three domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. The cognitive domain (1956) has six levels from knowledge to evaluation, and the revised form (2001) ends with "create".
In Andhra Pradesh, science academic standards are seven areas of learning (from conceptual understanding to application and concern for the environment). They tell what a child should be able to do.

Aims of teaching science

An aim is a general statement of the purpose of teaching a subject. It is far away, wide in meaning and cannot be tested in one class. Aims are set by educationists and policy makers.

Common aims of teaching science:

To give knowledge of facts, concepts, principles and laws.
To develop the scientific attitude and scientific method.
To develop skills of observation, experiment and drawing.
To make children understand and enjoy the natural environment.
To prepare children for daily life, for health and for work.
To develop interest, hobbies and a habit of reading about science.
To make children aware of their duty to protect nature.
To help children to take sensible decisions and to avoid superstition.

Term	Level	Nature	Example
Aim	Highest	General, long-term	Develop scientific attitude
Goal	Middle	Tied to a stage of schooling	Understand the life processes in plants by Class 8
Objective	Lowest	Specific, measurable, short-term	Names the parts of a flower after the lesson

Values of teaching science

Values are the benefits a learner gets from studying science.

Value	Meaning
Utilitarian (practical)	Science helps in daily life, such as using electricity safely or keeping food clean
Intellectual	It trains the mind to think, reason and solve problems
Disciplinary	It forms habits of order, patience, accuracy and honesty
Cultural	It shows how science has shaped customs, tools and civilisation
Vocational	It prepares for jobs such as medicine, farming and engineering
Aesthetic	It builds a sense of beauty in nature and in neat work
Moral	It builds truthfulness, honesty and humility
Recreational (leisure)	It gives useful hobbies such as gardening and star watching
Social	It builds team spirit and respect for others' ideas
Health	It teaches hygiene, nutrition and first aid

Correlation

Correlation means linking the science lesson with other subjects, with other topics of science and with life. It makes learning meaningful and avoids "watertight" subjects.

Types of correlation:

1. Correlation within science: physics with chemistry, or biology with chemistry (for example, photosynthesis involves light and a chemical change).
2. Correlation with other subjects:
Mathematics: calculations, graphs and formulae.
Language: reading, report writing and discussion.
Social studies: rivers, climate, and the history of discoveries.
Art: drawing and labelling diagrams.
Physical education: body systems and health.
3. Correlation with life: using examples from home, farm, kitchen and market.
4. Incidental correlation: done when a chance link arises in the class and the teacher uses it.
5. Systematic correlation: planned in advance and written into the lesson plan.

A good teacher uses both. Too much correlation can however take away the focus from the main topic.

Instructional objectives

Instructional objectives are written in behavioural terms (what the learner will be able to do), using action words which can be observed, such as *name, list, draw, compare, explain, calculate, predict, design*. Words like *know, understand, appreciate* are vague and are not used alone.

Mager's three parts of a good objective: the behaviour (what the learner does), the conditions (under which it is done) and the standard (how well it is done).

In India, the approach of the Regional College of Education, Mysore (RCEM) lists the objectives of science as knowledge, understanding, application, skill, attitude, interest and appreciation. Under each, a teacher writes the specifications (the actual behaviours that show the objective has been met).

Bloom's taxonomy

Benjamin Bloom led a group of educators in 1956 who made a classification of educational objectives into three domains.

1. Cognitive domain (thinking) - original (1956), from low to high:

Level	Meaning	Action words
Knowledge	Recall of facts	define, list, name
Comprehension	Understand meaning	explain, describe, give an example
Application	Use in a new situation	solve, apply, demonstrate
Analysis	Break into parts	compare, classify, distinguish
Synthesis	Put parts to form something new	design, plan, compose
Evaluation	Judge on a standard	judge, justify, criticise

Revised taxonomy (2001, Anderson and Krathwohl): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyse, Evaluate, Create. The names are now verbs, and "create" is placed at the top, above "evaluate".

2. Affective domain (feelings, Krathwohl and others, 1964): receiving, responding, valuing, organisation, characterisation (by a value).

3. Psychomotor domain (skills): several versions exist. The common ones are by Simpson (perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, origination) and by Dave (imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation, naturalisation).

Use in science teaching: the teacher should ask questions from all levels and not only at "recall" level. Experiments train psychomotor skills and values build the affective domain.

Academic standards (Andhra Pradesh)

Academic standards are statements of what a child should know and be able to do at the end of each class. In AP, based on the state curriculum framework, science has seven academic standards:

1. Conceptual understanding
2. Asking questions and making hypotheses
3. Experiments and field observations
4. Information skills and projects
5. Drawing figures and flow charts; modelling
6. Appreciation and aesthetic sense, and values
7. Application to daily life and concern for biodiversity

The teacher plans each lesson to cover these standards. The assessment is done by what the child does, and not only by what the child remembers. In this way, assessment links directly with the standards.

Writing good objectives: a worked example

Topic: parts of a flower (Class 6).

Weak objective: "The pupil will know about the flower." This cannot be observed or tested.
Good knowledge objective: "The pupil names the four whorls of a flower."
Good understanding objective: "The pupil explains why petals are bright in colour."
Good application objective: "The pupil identifies the stamens in a flower brought from home."
Good skill objective: "The pupil draws and labels a flower neatly."
Good attitude objective: "The pupil shows care while plucking and handling flowers."

Each of these has a clear action word, and a teacher can check at the end of the lesson whether it has been reached. A test question should match an objective in the same way; for example, "Name the four whorls of a flower" tests the knowledge objective.

Aims versus the NCF idea of learning

Modern curriculum documents say that science teaching should reduce the load of memorising and should encourage children to ask questions, do activities and link science to daily life. For this reason, many of today's objectives use words such as *observe, question, experiment, hypothesise* and *apply* rather than *remember*. The teacher should check the learning continuously and not only through an annual examination.

Classroom angle

Write lesson objectives in action words and tell the learners what they are expected to do.
Ask a few questions at higher levels (analyse, evaluate, create) in every lesson.
Link every topic to something the child sees at home or in the village.
Plan activities that give practice in each academic standard over the year.

Link between objectives and evaluation

Objectives, learning activities and evaluation must match. If the objective is at the level of application, the test question must also ask the pupil to apply the idea, and not only to recall it. A teacher who writes objectives in all three domains will also plan oral questions, practical tasks and observation of behaviour, instead of relying only on a written test. This is the base of continuous and comprehensive evaluation in schools.

Exam traps

1. Aim vs objective: aims are general; objectives are specific and measurable.
2. Bloom's top level: it is *evaluation* in the original list but *create* in the revised list.
3. Synthesis vs analysis: analysis breaks things into parts; synthesis joins parts into a new whole.
4. Cognitive vs affective: thinking is cognitive; attitude and interest are affective.
5. Utilitarian vs disciplinary value: daily-life use is utilitarian; habits of order and accuracy are disciplinary.
6. Incidental vs systematic correlation: incidental is by chance; systematic is planned.
7. Vague verbs: "know" and "understand" are not good action words for objectives.
8. Revised Bloom taxonomy was made in 2001, not in 1956.

One-liners

1. Aims are broad and long-term.
2. Objectives are specific and measurable.
3. Bloom's taxonomy was published in 1956.
4. The cognitive domain has six levels.
5. The revised taxonomy puts "create" at the top.
6. Krathwohl is linked with the affective domain.
7. Simpson and Dave worked on the psychomotor domain.
8. Mager's objective has behaviour, condition and standard.
9. The RCEM approach uses knowledge, understanding, application and skill as main objectives.
10. AP science has seven academic standards.
11. Cultural value shows the link between science and civilisation.
12. Correlation links science with other subjects and with life.

Practice questions

Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives has how many domains?
1. Five
2. Three
3. Four
4. Two
Answer
B. Three
Cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
The highest level of the revised cognitive taxonomy is
1. Understand
2. Apply
3. Evaluate
4. Create
Answer
D. Create
The 2001 revision places Create above Evaluate.
In the original cognitive taxonomy, the lowest level is
1. Application
2. Knowledge
3. Comprehension
4. Analysis
Answer
B. Knowledge
Knowledge (recall) is the base level.
The affective domain of objectives was worked out mainly by
1. Dave
2. Mager
3. Krathwohl
4. Simpson
Answer
C. Krathwohl
Krathwohl and colleagues gave the affective domain.
Receiving, responding, valuing, organisation and characterisation are the levels of the
1. psychomotor domain
2. affective domain
3. cognitive domain
4. social domain
Answer
B. affective domain
These are the levels of feelings and values.
How many academic standards are listed for science in Andhra Pradesh?
1. Nine
2. Five
3. Four
4. Seven
Answer
D. Seven
AP science has seven academic standards.
Mager's well-written objective contains behaviour, condition and
1. content
2. method
3. standard
4. aim
Answer
C. standard
Behaviour, conditions and standard (criterion).
Imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation and naturalisation form the psychomotor scheme of
1. Bloom
2. Krathwohl
3. Dave
4. Mager
Answer
C. Dave
This is Dave's scheme; Simpson's is a different list.
In the original cognitive taxonomy, the level that comes between Application and Synthesis is
1. Analysis
2. Comprehension
3. Knowledge
4. Evaluation
Answer
A. Analysis
Order: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation.
Which of the following is a suitable action word for an instructional objective?
1. Know
2. Appreciate
3. Understand
4. Draw
Answer
D. Draw
Draw can be observed; the other words are vague.
RCEM, whose approach to objectives is used in India, stands for
1. Regional College of Examinations, Mysore
2. Regional College of Education, Mysore
3. Research Council of Education, Madras
4. Regional Centre for Educational Methods
Answer
B. Regional College of Education, Mysore
RCEM is the Regional College of Education, Mysore.
The utilitarian value of science teaching refers to its
1. beauty in nature
2. use in daily life
3. link with history
4. training of habits
Answer
B. use in daily life
Utilitarian means practical use.
The revised version of Bloom's taxonomy was prepared by
1. Dave and Simpson
2. Mager and Gagne
3. Anderson and Krathwohl
4. Herbart and Rein
Answer
C. Anderson and Krathwohl
The 2001 revision was by Anderson, Krathwohl and others.
The first level of Simpson's psychomotor scheme is
1. origination
2. mechanism
3. adaptation
4. perception
Answer
D. perception
Simpson starts with perception and ends with origination.
Which of the following is an academic standard of AP science?
1. Information skills and projects
2. Memorising definitions
3. Ranking pupils by marks
4. Copying of notes
Answer
A. Information skills and projects
Information skills and projects is one of the seven.
'Characterisation by a value' is the highest level of the
1. cognitive domain
2. psychomotor domain
3. affective domain
4. revised cognitive domain
Answer
C. affective domain
It is the final level in Krathwohl's list.
Habits of order, accuracy and patience gained from science are its
1. vocational value
2. disciplinary value
3. recreational value
4. cultural value
Answer
B. disciplinary value
Disciplinary value means forming good mental habits.
A pupil names the parts of the human eye. This objective is at the level of
1. knowledge (remember)
2. application
3. analysis
4. evaluation
Answer
A. knowledge (remember)
Naming is recall.
A pupil compares the structure of a plant cell and an animal cell. This is at the level of
1. comprehension
2. synthesis
3. knowledge
4. analysis
Answer
D. analysis
Comparing parts is an analysis task.
A pupil designs a new experiment to test the effect of light on germination. This is at the level of
1. synthesis (create)
2. application
3. comprehension
4. knowledge
Answer
A. synthesis (create)
Designing something new is synthesis (create).
A pupil decides which of two water filters is better and gives reasons. This is at the level of
1. application
2. evaluation
3. knowledge
4. analysis
Answer
B. evaluation
Judging against a standard is evaluation.
A pupil draws and labels a neat diagram of the heart. This objective mainly belongs to the
1. affective domain
2. social domain
3. knowledge domain only
4. psychomotor domain
Answer
D. psychomotor domain
Drawing is a skill.
A pupil joins the school nature club willingly and cares for the plants. This shows the
1. psychomotor domain
2. physical domain
3. affective domain
4. cognitive domain
Answer
C. affective domain
Interest and willing participation are affective.
While teaching lenses, the teacher uses ray diagrams and calculations. This is correlation with
1. language
2. mathematics
3. art
4. history
Answer
B. mathematics
Calculations and graphs link science to mathematics.
Rain starts during a lesson and the teacher uses it to explain condensation. This is an example of
1. systematic correlation
2. recapitulation
3. vocational value
4. incidental correlation
Answer
D. incidental correlation
A chance event is used; it was not planned.
Which of the following is the best-written specific objective?
1. The pupil appreciates acids
2. The pupil understands chemistry
3. The pupil lists four properties of acids
4. The pupil knows about acids
Answer
C. The pupil lists four properties of acids
It has an observable action word and a clear standard.
'The pupil appreciates the importance of science' is a poorly written objective because it
1. uses a vague word that cannot be observed
2. has an action word
3. is too short
4. is about attitude
Answer
A. uses a vague word that cannot be observed
Appreciates is not directly observable.
Praising honesty in recording experiment data builds the
1. moral value of science
2. utilitarian value
3. vocational value
4. cultural value
Answer
A. moral value of science
Truthful reporting develops moral values.
A teacher links a lesson on soil with the farming in the pupils' village. This is correlation with
1. art
2. life
3. language
4. another school
Answer
B. life
Using local, daily-life examples is correlation with life.
A pupil handles the microscope correctly and focuses it. This objective belongs to the
1. moral domain
2. cognitive domain
3. psychomotor domain
4. affective domain
Answer
C. psychomotor domain
It is a manipulative skill.
Consider the statements about aims and objectives. 1. Aims are broad and long-term. 2. Objectives are specific and measurable. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both statements are correct.
Consider the statements about Bloom's taxonomy. 1. In the revised taxonomy, 'Create' is the highest level. 2. The cognitive domain originally had five levels. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
It had six levels: knowledge to evaluation.
Consider the statements about domains of objectives. 1. Valuing is a level of the affective domain. 2. Precision is a level in the psychomotor scheme of Dave. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Consider the statements about correlation. 1. Systematic correlation is planned in advance. 2. Incidental correlation is written in the year plan. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Incidental correlation arises by chance.
Consider the statements about AP academic standards. 1. Conceptual understanding is one of them. 2. Application to daily life and concern for biodiversity is one of them. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are among the seven standards.
Consider the statements about writing objectives. 1. 'Understand' is a good action word for objectives. 2. 'Name' can be observed and tested. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Understand is vague; name is observable.
Consider the statements about values of science. 1. Cultural value shows how science has shaped civilisation. 2. Vocational value prepares pupils for jobs. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Consider the statements about the revised taxonomy. 1. It places 'Evaluate' above 'Create'. 2. The levels are named as verbs, such as Remember and Apply. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Create is above Evaluate; the names are verbs.
Match the domain with the level: (A) Cognitive (B) Affective (C) Psychomotor; (1) Responding (2) Analysis (3) Mechanism
1. A-3, B-1, C-2
2. A-1, B-2, C-3
3. A-2, B-3, C-1
4. A-2, B-1, C-3
Answer
D. A-2, B-1, C-3
Analysis is cognitive; responding is affective; mechanism is in Simpson's psychomotor scheme.
Match the value with its meaning: (A) Utilitarian (B) Aesthetic (C) Disciplinary (D) Recreational; (1) beauty in nature (2) use in daily life (3) habits of accuracy (4) useful hobbies
1. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
2. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
3. A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
4. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
Answer
D. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
Utilitarian - daily use; aesthetic - beauty; disciplinary - habits; recreational - hobbies.
Match the original Bloom level with the verb: (A) Knowledge (B) Application (C) Analysis (D) Synthesis; (1) design (2) list (3) solve (4) compare
1. A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4
2. A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1
3. A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
4. A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1
Answer
D. A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1
List - knowledge; solve - application; compare - analysis; design - synthesis.
Match the person with the work: (A) Bloom (B) Mager (C) Krathwohl (D) Anderson; (1) cognitive taxonomy (2) three-part objectives (3) affective domain (4) revised taxonomy
1. A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
2. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
3. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
4. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Answer
D. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Bloom - cognitive; Mager - three-part objectives; Krathwohl - affective; Anderson - revised taxonomy.
A teacher plans in advance to teach 'Sound' with music, using links between science and art. This is
1. systematic correlation
2. an aim
3. incidental correlation
4. recapitulation
Answer
A. systematic correlation
A planned link is systematic correlation.
Which standard is tested when a pupil prepares a flow chart of the water cycle?
1. Conceptual understanding only
2. Drawing figures and flow charts; modelling
3. Application to daily life
4. Asking questions
Answer
B. Drawing figures and flow charts; modelling
Flow charts and models belong to this standard.
Which one is a broad, long-term statement for science teaching?
1. To develop a habit of questioning and reasoning
2. To name the parts of the ear
3. To define density correctly
4. To list the organs of digestion
Answer
A. To develop a habit of questioning and reasoning
Broad habits are aims.

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7.The value of universal gravitational constant is _______
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9.The value of 'g' decreases with ______.
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