Teaching Science: Methodology (Physical and Biological) · Chapter 3

Approaches and Methods of Teaching Science

What to remember

A method is the way of teaching; an approach is the broad view behind it. Inductive and deductive are approaches or reasoning paths; lecture, demonstration, laboratory, project and heuristic are methods.
Inductive goes from examples to rule; deductive goes from rule to examples. Science teaching prefers the inductive path for discovery and the deductive path for practice.
Activity-based methods (heuristic, project, laboratory, problem solving) make the learner active, while lecture and demonstration keep the teacher active.

Approach, method, technique, strategy

Approach: a general view or philosophy about how learning happens.
Method: a planned, step-by-step way to teach a topic.
Technique: a small skill or trick used inside a method (such as questioning).
Strategy: the overall plan that joins methods, techniques and aids to reach the objectives.

Inductive and deductive approaches

Inductive method (particular to general)

The teacher gives several examples or experiments. Pupils observe, compare and find the common point, and then state the rule.
Steps: examples, observation, analysis, generalisation (rule), testing the rule.
Example: pupils heat different metals and see that each one expands, and then they state "metals expand on heating".
Merits: the pupil discovers the rule; it gives lasting learning; it follows the order "known to unknown, concrete to abstract, simple to complex".
Limits: slow; needs many examples; hard for abstract topics.
Linked name: Francis Bacon.

Deductive method (general to particular)

The rule is stated first, and then it is tested or used on examples.
Steps: statement of rule, explanation, examples, verification.
Example: the teacher states Ohm's law and pupils use it to solve problems.
Merits: quick; good for revision and practice; covers more content.
Limits: it can lead to rote memory; the pupil is passive.

Point	Inductive	Deductive
Direction	Examples to rule	Rule to examples
Learner role	Active discovery	Mostly passive
Speed	Slow	Fast
Best use	Introducing a new idea	Practice and revision

Lecture method

The teacher explains and the pupils listen and take notes.

Merits: saves time; useful for large groups; gives background and an overview; the teacher controls the content.
Limits: one-way; weak in skills; attention falls after about 20 minutes; not suited to young children.
Improve it with questions, charts and short pauses.

Demonstration method

The teacher performs the experiment in front of the class and the pupils watch, and answer questions.

Used when the apparatus is costly, dangerous or limited, or when the time is short.
Merits: saves material and time; safe; the teacher shows the correct skill; all pupils see the same result.
Limits: pupils do not handle apparatus; those at the back may not see well.
Good practice: check that the set-up works before the class, make it visible to all, involve pupils by asking them to predict and explain. A lecture-cum-demonstration method combines both.

Laboratory method

Each pupil or a small group performs the experiment on their own using the apparatus.

Merits: learning by doing; builds skills, patience and the scientific attitude; makes ideas real.
Limits: costly; needs space and time; breakage; not all topics are suited to it.
Good practice: provide a work-sheet with aim, apparatus, steps, observation table and result; teach safety rules first.

Heuristic method

The word comes from the Greek *heurisko*, "I find out". It was proposed by H.E. Armstrong (England).

The teacher plays the role of a guide who asks questions, and pupils find facts for themselves by experiments and thinking.
Merits: develops curiosity, reasoning and independence; builds the scientific attitude.
Limits: needs time, trained teachers and a good lab; not all pupils can discover on their own; difficult to finish the course.

Project method

It rests on the ideas of John Dewey, "learning by doing", and was developed by W.H. Kilpatrick. A project is a problem-solving activity done in a natural, real-life setting, and usually carried out by a group.

Steps (commonly listed): providing a situation, choosing the project, planning, executing, evaluating, and recording (reporting).

Examples: making a rain gauge, preparing a herbarium, growing a vegetable plot, surveying the water sources of the village.
Merits: purposeful learning; teamwork; links the school with life; builds responsibility.
Limits: time-consuming; difficult to cover the whole course; needs resources; weak pupils may depend on others.
The teacher's role: guide and supporter, not a director.

Scientific method

It is the way scientists work. Steps:

1. Sensing or identifying a problem
2. Defining the problem
3. Forming a hypothesis
4. Collecting data through observation and experiment
5. Testing the hypothesis
6. Drawing a conclusion and generalising

Benefits: shows how science is done; trains in objectivity and logic. A teacher should note that real scientists do not always follow the steps in a fixed order.

Problem-solving method

John Dewey's steps in *How We Think* (1910) are the base:

1. Felt difficulty (becoming aware of a problem)
2. Locating and defining the problem
3. Suggesting possible solutions
4. Reasoning out the effect of each suggestion
5. Testing by observation and experiment, and accepting one solution

Method	Active person	Main strength	Main limit
Lecture	Teacher	Time saving	One-way
Demonstration	Teacher	Safe and economical	Pupil does not handle apparatus
Laboratory	Pupil	Skills	Costly and slow
Heuristic	Pupil	Discovery	Time-consuming
Project	Pupil group	Real-life learning	Course coverage is hard
Problem solving	Pupil	Thinking	Needs guidance

Worked classroom examples

Inductive: To teach "air has weight", the teacher lets pupils weigh a balloon before and after filling it with air, and repeat with a football. After the observations, pupils state the rule: "Air has weight."
Deductive: After stating "Light travels in a straight line", the teacher asks pupils to explain why a shadow has the same shape as the object, and to predict the shadow size when a torch is moved closer.
Demonstration: The teacher shows the action of an acid on a metal in a test tube, while pupils note the gas bubbles and name the gas.
Laboratory: Each group of four pupils tests the pH of lemon juice, soap solution and water with indicator paper, and records the table.
Heuristic: The teacher gives the question "Why does a candle go out under a glass jar?" Pupils plan tests with different jar sizes and find the reason.
Project: Pupils survey the plants of the school garden and make a chart of useful plants.
Problem solving: "Why do plants in the corridor grow bent towards the window?" Pupils suggest causes, test them with potted plants and conclude.

Role of the teacher and the learner

In teacher-centred methods (lecture, demonstration), the teacher gives information and controls the pace. In learner-centred methods (laboratory, heuristic, project, problem solving), the teacher asks questions, gives resources and watches, while pupils investigate. Modern curriculum thinking prefers learner-centred, activity-based learning, but it also accepts that a short, clear explanation by the teacher is useful at the right time.

Choosing a method

No single method is the best. The teacher should choose by the objective, the topic, the class size, the age of pupils, the material available and the time. In practice, it is best to mix methods, for example a short lecture with a demonstration and then group activity.

Common mistakes in using methods

Teachers often use the lecture method for every topic because it is quick. Some use the laboratory method but give the steps in a fixed sheet, so that the pupils only copy the procedure and do not think. In a project, the teacher may do most of the work and leave pupils with little to do. In the inductive method, the teacher may give too few examples, so the rule drawn is weak. A good teacher checks that the method really gives pupils a chance to think, to ask and to do.

Exam traps

1. Inductive vs deductive: inductive starts from examples; deductive starts from a rule.
2. Heuristic vs project: heuristic is Armstrong's "discovery" method; project is Kilpatrick's method of real-life tasks.
3. Demonstration vs laboratory: in demonstration the teacher does the work; in the laboratory the pupil does.
4. Scientific method vs problem solving: both are close; problem solving is linked to Dewey's five steps.
5. Method vs technique: questioning is a technique, not a method.
6. Project method steps end with evaluation and recording, not with "hypothesis".
7. Lecture is the most teacher-centred of all the methods.
8. Heuristic means "I find out" (Greek), not "I teach".

One-liners

1. Inductive method moves from particular to general.
2. Deductive method moves from general to particular.
3. The heuristic method is associated with H.E. Armstrong.
4. The project method is associated with W.H. Kilpatrick.
5. Project method is based on Dewey's "learning by doing".
6. Dewey's *How We Think* was published in 1910.
7. A demonstration saves time and apparatus.
8. The laboratory method gives direct hands-on skill.
9. Lecture is a one-way method.
10. "Heuristic" comes from the Greek word meaning "I find out".
11. A hypothesis is formed after the problem is defined.
12. A strategy joins methods, techniques and aids.

Practice questions

The inductive method of teaching moves from
1. a general rule to examples
2. theory to practice only
3. particular examples to a general rule
4. the abstract to the concrete
Answer
C. particular examples to a general rule
Induction goes from examples to the rule.
The deductive method of teaching moves from
1. the concrete to the abstract
2. pupil questions to the teacher
3. examples to a general rule
4. a general rule to particular examples
Answer
D. a general rule to particular examples
Deduction applies a stated rule to cases.
The heuristic method of teaching science is associated with
1. John Herbart
2. H.E. Armstrong
3. B.F. Skinner
4. W.H. Kilpatrick
Answer
B. H.E. Armstrong
Armstrong proposed the heuristic (discovery) method.
The project method was developed by
1. Norman Crowder
2. H.E. Armstrong
3. Dwight Allen
4. W.H. Kilpatrick
Answer
D. W.H. Kilpatrick
Kilpatrick developed it from Dewey's ideas.
The word 'heuristic' comes from a Greek word meaning
1. I find out
2. I remember
3. I teach
4. I measure
Answer
A. I find out
Heurisko means I find out.
The project method is based on the educational ideas of
1. Aristotle
2. John Dewey
3. Herbart
4. Newton
Answer
B. John Dewey
Dewey's 'learning by doing' underlies it.
Dewey's five steps of reflective thinking appear in his book
1. Experience and Nature
2. The Child and the Curriculum
3. How We Think
4. Democracy and Education
Answer
C. How We Think
How We Think gives the steps used in problem solving.
Which method keeps the teacher most active and the pupils mostly listening?
1. Heuristic method
2. Laboratory method
3. Project method
4. Lecture method
Answer
D. Lecture method
Lecture is one-way and teacher-centred.
In which method do pupils themselves perform experiments with apparatus?
1. Laboratory method
2. Demonstration method
3. Deductive method
4. Lecture method
Answer
A. Laboratory method
In the laboratory method pupils do the work.
The first step of the scientific method is
1. collecting data
2. sensing or identifying a problem
3. testing the hypothesis
4. drawing a conclusion
Answer
B. sensing or identifying a problem
A problem must be sensed before a hypothesis.
The correct order of the first steps of Dewey's problem solving is
1. defining, testing, suggesting solutions
2. suggesting solutions, felt difficulty, testing
3. felt difficulty, defining the problem, suggesting solutions
4. testing, defining, felt difficulty
Answer
C. felt difficulty, defining the problem, suggesting solutions
Dewey starts with felt difficulty.
Which of the following is the last step of the project method?
1. Recording (reporting)
2. Planning
3. Choosing the project
4. Providing a situation
Answer
A. Recording (reporting)
The steps end with evaluation and recording.
The method that saves time and costly apparatus because the teacher performs the experiment is
1. heuristic method
2. demonstration method
3. laboratory method
4. project method
Answer
B. demonstration method
Demonstration is economical and safe.
Francis Bacon is linked with the
1. deductive method
2. lecture method
3. project method
4. inductive method
Answer
D. inductive method
Bacon stressed induction from observed cases.
A 'technique' in teaching means
1. a small skill used inside a method
2. the whole plan of a course
3. a philosophy of education
4. a type of textbook
Answer
A. a small skill used inside a method
Questioning is a technique within a method.
A hypothesis is formed in the scientific method after
1. the conclusion is drawn
2. the problem is defined
3. data are collected
4. the result is verified
Answer
B. the problem is defined
Define the problem, then form a hypothesis.
Which method is best for large groups when a quick overview is needed?
1. Heuristic method
2. Project method
3. Lecture method
4. Laboratory method
Answer
C. Lecture method
Lecture reaches many pupils in less time.
The overall plan that joins methods, techniques and aids to reach objectives is a
1. hypothesis
2. technique
3. fact
4. strategy
Answer
D. strategy
Strategy is the master plan.
To teach 'metals expand on heating', a teacher heats several metals and lets pupils state the rule. This is the
1. project method
2. inductive method
3. lecture method
4. deductive method
Answer
B. inductive method
Examples first, rule later.
A teacher states Ohm's law and then asks pupils to solve problems using it. This is the
1. project method
2. heuristic method
3. inductive method
4. deductive method
Answer
D. deductive method
Rule first, then examples.
The teacher shows the action of acid on a metal and pupils only watch and answer questions. This is the
1. demonstration method
2. heuristic method
3. laboratory method
4. project method
Answer
A. demonstration method
The teacher performs; pupils observe.
Pupils survey the plants of the school garden and prepare a chart. This is an example of the
1. deductive method
2. demonstration method
3. project method
4. lecture method
Answer
C. project method
A real-life group task is a project.
Pupils get a question 'Why does a candle go out under a jar?' and plan tests to find the reason by themselves. This is the
1. heuristic method
2. lecture method
3. deductive method
4. demonstration method
Answer
A. heuristic method
Pupils discover with the teacher as guide.
A major limit of the laboratory method is that it
1. cannot build skills
2. needs apparatus, space and time
3. needs no planning
4. keeps pupils passive
Answer
B. needs apparatus, space and time
It is costly and time-consuming.
Which method is the best for teaching a dangerous experiment when apparatus is limited?
1. Laboratory method
2. Heuristic method
3. Demonstration method
4. Project method
Answer
C. Demonstration method
The teacher can do it safely for all.
Which is an advantage of the inductive method?
1. It is the fastest method
2. It needs no examples
3. It suits all abstract topics
4. The pupil discovers the rule and remembers it longer
Answer
D. The pupil discovers the rule and remembers it longer
Discovery gives lasting learning.
A major limit of the deductive method is that it can
1. make pupils discover rules
2. waste apparatus
3. be used only in a laboratory
4. lead to rote memory
Answer
D. lead to rote memory
Rules given first may be memorised without understanding.
A method which uses small groups, a real-life task and a final report would be
1. project method
2. deductive method
3. lecture method
4. demonstration method
Answer
A. project method
Project steps end with recording.
Which method gives each pupil the most direct practice of manual skills?
1. Demonstration method
2. Deductive method
3. Laboratory method
4. Lecture method
Answer
C. Laboratory method
Pupils themselves handle apparatus.
In the scientific method, the step that comes just after forming the hypothesis is
1. defining the problem
2. collecting data by observation and experiment
3. sensing the problem
4. stating the final law
Answer
B. collecting data by observation and experiment
Data are collected to test the hypothesis.
A teacher uses a short lecture, then a demonstration, then group activity. This shows that
1. methods can be combined for best results
2. only one method is correct
3. lecture should never be used
4. demonstration replaces practice
Answer
A. methods can be combined for best results
No single method is best for every topic.
Consider the statements about the inductive method. 1. It moves from examples to a rule. 2. It follows the maxim 'concrete to abstract'. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Consider the statements about the project method. 1. It was developed by Kilpatrick. 2. It is teacher-centred. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
It is learner-centred.
Consider the statements about the lecture method. 1. It is useful for large groups. 2. It gives pupils the most practice in skills. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Lecture is weak in skills.
Consider the statements about the heuristic method. 1. The teacher acts as a guide. 2. It is quick and covers the course easily. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
It is time-consuming.
Consider the statements about the laboratory method. 1. Pupils perform the experiments themselves. 2. It is cheaper than demonstration. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
It is costlier than demonstration.
Consider the statements about the scientific method. 1. It begins with a hypothesis. 2. It ends with a conclusion. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
It begins with sensing a problem.
Consider the statements about teaching terms. 1. Method and technique mean exactly the same thing. 2. A strategy joins methods, techniques and aids. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
A technique is a small skill inside a method.
Consider the statements about the deductive method. 1. It is useful for revision and practice. 2. It moves from general to particular. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Consider the statements about problem solving. 1. The pupil tests the suggested solutions. 2. Dewey's steps begin with testing. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Dewey begins with a felt difficulty.
Consider the statements about the demonstration method. 1. Pupils handle the apparatus in this method. 2. It saves apparatus and time. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
The teacher handles the apparatus.
Match the method with its originator: (A) Heuristic (B) Project (C) Problem solving (D) Inductive; (1) Kilpatrick (2) Armstrong (3) Dewey (4) Bacon
1. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
2. A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
3. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
4. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
Answer
D. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
Armstrong - heuristic; Kilpatrick - project; Dewey - problem solving; Bacon - induction.
Match the method with its main limit: (A) Lecture (B) Demonstration (C) Laboratory (D) Project; (1) one-way (2) pupils do not handle apparatus (3) costly (4) difficult to cover the course
1. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
2. A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
3. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
4. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Answer
D. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Each limit is matched with its method.
Match the situation with the method: (A) Pupils test pH of liquids in groups (B) Teacher shows gas collection (C) Teacher states a law and gives problems (D) Pupils make a rain gauge; (1) Deductive (2) Project (3) Laboratory (4) Demonstration
1. A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
2. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
3. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
4. A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
Answer
C. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
Group testing is laboratory; teacher showing is demonstration; rule first is deductive; rain gauge is a project.
Match the step with the method: (A) Providing a situation (B) Felt difficulty (C) Sensing a problem (D) Statement of the rule; (1) Project (2) Problem solving (3) Scientific method (4) Deductive
1. A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
2. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
3. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
4. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Answer
D. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Providing a situation starts a project; felt difficulty starts problem solving; sensing a problem starts the scientific method; the rule is stated first in deduction.

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1.The fragmentation method of reproduction is shown in ______
2.Through which method of cell division are the diploid chromosomes divided into haploid gametes?
3.Mendel obtained F₂ progeny from F1 generation plants by the method of ________.
4.Which of the following is NOT a method of reproduction by a solitary individual organism?
5.Which of the following is NOT a method of introducing desirable character in crop varieties?
6.Which of the following is an asexual method of reproduction in organisms like amoeba?
7.Which of the following methods is used to break the small stones made into the kidneys into fine particles?
8.Which of the following methods is used for refining nickel metal?
9.Which of the following methods can be used for separating a mixture of NaCl and NH 4 CI?
10.Which of the following methods ensures prevention of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases during sexual intercourse?

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