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Teaching Science: Methodology (Physical and Biological) · Chapter 6

Teaching-Learning Materials (TLM), Improvised Aids and Dale's Cone of Experience

What to remember

  • TLM are tools that make an abstract science idea concrete. A good aid is simple, low in cost, safe, accurate and used at the right moment, not just displayed.
  • Dale's Cone of Experience moves from concrete to abstract. The base is direct, purposeful experience; the top is verbal symbols (words). Good teaching climbs up and down the cone.
  • Improvised aids are made by the teacher and children from waste and local material. They build skill, save money and keep science close to daily life.

Meaning and need of TLM

Teaching-learning material (TLM) means every object, picture, model, device or media that a teacher uses to help children understand a topic. The older term is "teaching aid". Science is full of things that children cannot see directly: the cell, the heart, the solar system, a chemical change. TLM bring these ideas near to the child.

Main purposes of TLM:

  • They make learning concrete, so the child forms a clear idea before learning the word.
  • They hold attention and raise interest and motivation.
  • They save time and reduce long explanations.
  • They support many senses at once (sight, touch, hearing), so retention is better.
  • They help the slow learner and the fast learner to work at their own pace.
  • They help the teacher to move from rote learning to learning by doing and observing.

Rules for using an aid:

  • 1. Select it to match the objective of the lesson, not the other way round.
  • 2. Check it before the class so that it works and is accurate.
  • 3. Show it only when it is needed; keep it hidden before and remove it after.
  • 4. Let children handle, observe and question the aid.
  • 5. Link it to earlier knowledge and to the next step of the lesson.
  • 6. Evaluate how much it helped.

Qualities of a good aid

A good TLM is relevant to the topic, accurate in science, simple to understand, large enough for all to see, attractive in colour and design, durable, cheap, easy to handle and safe. It should help children to take part and should suit the age and level of the class.

Classification of aids

Aids are grouped in several ways. The common one is by the sense used.

TypeMeaningExamples
Visual aidsUsed through the eyeChalkboard, charts, models, specimens, maps, posters, pictures, flash cards
Audio aidsUsed through the earRadio, audio recordings, tape or voice recorder
Audio-visual aidsUse both eye and earTelevision, films, video clips, computer-based lessons, animations
Activity or hands-on aidsChild works with real thingsScience kit, experiments, models made by children

Another grouping separates projected aids (slide projector, overhead projector, film, LCD projector, smart board) from non-projected aids (chalkboard, charts, models, specimens, flannel board, bulletin board).

Common science aids and their use:

  • Chalkboard (blackboard): the oldest and most used aid. Use it for headings, diagrams and summaries. Write in large, clear letters and keep the board clean.
  • Charts and posters: show processes, classifications and life cycles. A chart should have a title, large labels and few ideas.
  • Models: may be still models (a model of the human eye), working models (a model of a water pump) or cross-section models (the inside of a heart or flower).
  • Real objects and specimens: the best aid in biology. Examples are plants, seeds, bones, preserved animals and rock samples. A herbarium is a collection of dried, pressed plants.
  • Living collections: an aquarium keeps water animals and plants, a terrarium keeps small land plants and animals, and a vivarium keeps animals in natural-like surroundings.
  • Flannel board and magnetic board: pieces stick to the board, so the teacher can build and change a diagram step by step.
  • Bulletin board: displays news, children's work and science events.
  • Slides, filmstrips, OHP, LCD projector: magnify and show pictures or text for a large group.
  • Radio, television, internet and educational software: bring experts, events and places into the class. In recent years digital content and smart classrooms are used in many schools.
  • Science kit: a box of simple apparatus. Kits make it possible to perform experiments even in schools without a full laboratory.

Improvised (low-cost, no-cost) aids

When ready-made apparatus is not available, the teacher and children make it from waste or cheap material. This is called improvisation. It is an important idea in science teaching in India because many schools have limited funds.

Advantages:

  • Costs very little and uses local material.
  • Children learn to design, build and fix, which develops skills and creativity.
  • The child sees that science does not need costly instruments.
  • Material is always available, so experiments are not skipped.
  • Builds a habit of reuse and care for the environment.

Examples of improvisation:

NeedImprovised material
Test tube or beakerGlass bottle, tumbler, cut plastic bottle
Spirit lampSmall bottle with a cotton wick and oil
FunnelCut top of a plastic bottle
Measuring cylinderMarked plastic bottle or medicine bottle
DropperUsed pen refill or medicine dropper
Simple microscope or magnifierWater drop on a thin clear sheet or a magnifying lens
Pinhole cameraClosed box with a tiny hole and a thin paper screen
Rain gaugeCylindrical container with a scale
Electric circuitTorch cell, bulb, wire and a safety pin as switch
Magnet-based activityOld magnets from toys or speakers
BalanceScale with a stick, thread and two cups
Model of lungsBottle, balloons and a straw

Cautions: improvised apparatus must still be safe and accurate. Glass pieces must have no sharp edges, and anything with heat or electricity must be checked by the teacher.

Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience

Edgar Dale was an American educator. He placed learning experiences in a cone to show the path from concrete to abstract. The base of the cone has the most direct experience; as one moves up, experience becomes more symbolic. The cone is not a rule that one level is "better"; it tells the teacher that abstract learning must rest on a base of concrete experience.

From base to top (commonly presented order):

Level (bottom to top)Meaning
Direct, purposeful experiencesChild does and handles real things, such as growing a plant
Contrived experiencesModels, mock-ups and specimens that stand for real things
Dramatized experiencesRole play, drama, simulations
DemonstrationsTeacher shows how something is done
Field trips (study trips)Visit to a farm, factory, museum or park
ExhibitsDisplays and science fair items
Educational televisionSeen on television screen
Motion picturesFilms and video
Recordings, radio and still picturesSound recordings, photographs
Visual symbolsCharts, maps, diagrams
Verbal symbolsSpoken or written words

Key ideas about the cone:

  • It supports "learning by doing" and the activity-based approach in science.
  • Lower levels give richer sense experience; upper levels are efficient for large groups and for ideas that cannot be shown directly.
  • The teacher should use a variety of levels in one unit and should not stay only at the top (lecture and textbook).
  • The cone is often grouped into three bands: doing, observing and symbolic.
  • The percentage figures that are sometimes drawn on the cone (for example "we remember 10 per cent of what we read") are not part of Dale's work and are not reliable.

Exam traps

  • 1. Teaching aid vs TLM: both mean the same in practice; TLM is the more modern term.
  • 2. Visual vs audio-visual: a chart is visual; television and film are audio-visual; radio is audio.
  • 3. Projected vs non-projected: OHP, LCD projector and slides are projected; chart, model and chalkboard are not.
  • 4. Aquarium vs terrarium vs vivarium: water vs small land habitat vs natural-like habitat for animals.
  • 5. Herbarium vs museum specimen: herbarium holds dried pressed plants.
  • 6. Base vs top of the cone: base is direct purposeful experience; top is verbal symbols, not television.
  • 7. Concrete to abstract is the direction of the cone from bottom to top; do not reverse it.
  • 8. Improvised aid vs readymade kit: improvised means made by teacher or children from local or waste material.

One-liners

  • 1. TLM stands for Teaching-Learning Material.
  • 2. A chalkboard is the most commonly used visual aid in Indian classrooms.
  • 3. Radio is an audio aid; television is an audio-visual aid.
  • 4. A working model shows how a machine or organ functions.
  • 5. A flannel board keeps pieces in place by friction between cloth and the backs of the pieces.
  • 6. A herbarium is a collection of dried, pressed and labelled plants.
  • 7. An aquarium is used to study water animals and plants.
  • 8. Dale's cone has direct, purposeful experience at the base.
  • 9. Verbal symbols are at the top of Dale's cone.
  • 10. Improvised apparatus is made from low-cost or waste material.
  • 11. A pinhole camera can be made with a box, a tiny hole and a paper screen.
  • 12. A good aid is used at the right time, then removed from view.

Practice questions

  1. In Dale's Cone of Experience, which level is at the base?

    1. Educational television
    2. Direct, purposeful experiences
    3. Verbal symbols
    4. Visual symbols
    Answer

    B. Direct, purposeful experiences

    The base of the cone is first-hand, direct experience; verbal symbols are at the top.

  2. Which level is at the top of Dale's Cone of Experience?

    1. Contrived experiences
    2. Exhibits
    3. Demonstrations
    4. Verbal symbols
    Answer

    D. Verbal symbols

    The most abstract level, spoken or written words, is at the top.

  3. Which of the following is an audio aid?

    1. Flannel board
    2. Television
    3. Radio
    4. Chart
    Answer

    C. Radio

    Radio is used only through hearing; television is audio-visual.

  4. Which of the following is an audio-visual aid?

    1. Chalkboard
    2. Radio
    3. Educational television
    4. Herbarium
    Answer

    C. Educational television

    Television uses both sight and sound.

  5. A collection of dried, pressed and labelled plants is called a

    1. terrarium
    2. vivarium
    3. aquarium
    4. herbarium
    Answer

    D. herbarium

    A herbarium holds preserved plant specimens.

  6. A glass tank used to keep water animals and plants for study is a(n)

    1. herbarium
    2. aquarium
    3. planetarium
    4. terrarium
    Answer

    B. aquarium

    An aquarium is a water habitat kept in the school.

  7. A container with soil and small land plants kept for observation is a

    1. aquarium
    2. herbarium
    3. museum
    4. terrarium
    Answer

    D. terrarium

    A terrarium models a small land habitat.

  8. Which of the following is a non-projected aid?

    1. LCD projector
    2. Chart
    3. Overhead projector
    4. Slide projector
    Answer

    B. Chart

    Charts, models and boards need no projection equipment.

  9. Which of the following is a projected aid?

    1. Model
    2. Flannel board
    3. Overhead projector
    4. Bulletin board
    Answer

    C. Overhead projector

    An overhead projector throws an enlarged image on a screen.

  10. An aid made by the teacher and children from waste or local material is called

    1. a readymade kit
    2. an improvised aid
    3. a commercial model
    4. a standard chart
    Answer

    B. an improvised aid

    Improvisation means making apparatus from low-cost or waste material.

  11. The abbreviation TLM stands for

    1. Teaching Level Measure
    2. Textbook Learning Material
    3. Total Learning Method
    4. Teaching-Learning Material
    Answer

    D. Teaching-Learning Material

    TLM is the modern term for teaching aids.

  12. Which board allows pieces of a diagram to be added and changed step by step by sticking them on cloth?

    1. Notice board
    2. Chalkboard
    3. Flannel board
    4. Bulletin board
    Answer

    C. Flannel board

    Pieces stick to the cloth surface and can be moved easily.

  13. Which of these can be used as an improvised spirit lamp?

    1. A plastic tray
    2. A rubber tube
    3. A small bottle with a cotton wick and oil
    4. A glass funnel with water
    Answer

    C. A small bottle with a cotton wick and oil

    A wick in a fuel-filled bottle can serve as a simple burner.

  14. Which improvised material can replace a funnel in a laboratory?

    1. A cork stopper
    2. Cut top of a plastic bottle
    3. A paper clip
    4. A glass rod
    Answer

    B. Cut top of a plastic bottle

    The cut neck of a bottle guides liquid like a funnel.

  15. A teacher shows a model of a heart cut open to display its chambers. This is a

    1. working model
    2. specimen
    3. flash card
    4. cross-section model
    Answer

    D. cross-section model

    A cross-section model reveals the inside of an object.

  16. A model of a water pump that shows how the parts move is a

    1. still model
    2. working model
    3. herbarium
    4. chart
    Answer

    B. working model

    Working models demonstrate how a device functions.

  17. Which of the following is a good rule for using an aid in the classroom?

    1. Show it only when it is needed in the lesson
    2. Display it for the whole day
    3. Use it before the lesson starts to attract attention
    4. Use it without checking it earlier
    Answer

    A. Show it only when it is needed in the lesson

    Aids should be used at the right moment and then removed.

  18. A teacher selects a film clip because it matches the objective of the lesson. Which principle is followed?

    1. Aids are chosen by cost alone
    2. Aids replace the teacher
    3. Aids are used for decoration
    4. Aids are chosen to serve the objective
    Answer

    D. Aids are chosen to serve the objective

    Selection of TLM begins from the lesson objective.

  19. In Dale's Cone, a school visit to a farm to observe crops is called a

    1. verbal symbol
    2. motion picture
    3. field trip
    4. visual symbol
    Answer

    C. field trip

    Field or study trips are concrete experiences near the base.

  20. Which sequence in Dale's cone goes from more concrete to more abstract?

    1. Exhibits, verbal symbols, demonstrations, motion pictures
    2. Motion pictures, demonstrations, verbal symbols, exhibits
    3. Verbal symbols, motion pictures, exhibits, demonstrations
    4. Demonstrations, exhibits, motion pictures, verbal symbols
    Answer

    D. Demonstrations, exhibits, motion pictures, verbal symbols

    The cone runs from doing, through observing, to symbolic experience.

  21. Dale's cone suggests that teachers should

    1. use a variety of experiences and rest abstract ideas on concrete ones
    2. teach only through lectures
    3. avoid concrete experiences for older children
    4. give only verbal explanations
    Answer

    A. use a variety of experiences and rest abstract ideas on concrete ones

    Abstract learning needs a base of concrete experience.

  22. A teacher uses a pinhole camera made from a box to explain image formation. The main advantage of this is that it

    1. needs expensive apparatus
    2. avoids any practical work
    3. uses low-cost material and gives direct experience
    4. removes the need for questions
    Answer

    C. uses low-cost material and gives direct experience

    Improvised apparatus gives hands-on learning at low cost.

  23. Which is a limitation of a chalkboard as the only aid?

    1. It needs electricity
    2. It cannot show real objects or motion
    3. It is costly
    4. It cannot be reused
    Answer

    B. It cannot show real objects or motion

    A board shows words and sketches but not real objects or processes.

  24. A teacher makes a model of lungs with a bottle, balloons and a straw. This activity is best described as

    1. use of a projected aid
    2. an audio aid
    3. a field trip
    4. improvisation with waste material
    Answer

    D. improvisation with waste material

    The model uses cheap and waste items.

  25. Which is the best use of an aquarium in a biology lesson?

    1. To record sound
    2. To observe the behaviour of water animals directly
    3. To store chemicals
    4. To show the night sky
    Answer

    B. To observe the behaviour of water animals directly

    An aquarium offers live observation.

  26. Which of the following is NOT a quality of a good TLM?

    1. It is safe and durable
    2. It is simple and accurate
    3. It is complex so that children must guess its meaning
    4. It is suited to the age of children
    Answer

    C. It is complex so that children must guess its meaning

    A good aid should make the idea clear, not confusing.

  27. Which is the most suitable aid to teach the life cycle of a frog to a large class when a live frog is not available?

    1. A clear labelled chart or video
    2. A blank board
    3. A long lecture alone
    4. A chemical balance
    Answer

    A. A clear labelled chart or video

    Visual aids can substitute when the real object is not available.

  28. A teacher plans to show a concept by role-play. On Dale's cone this is closest to

    1. verbal symbols
    2. dramatized experience
    3. educational television
    4. visual symbols
    Answer

    B. dramatized experience

    Dramatized experiences include role play and simulations.

  29. When a teacher hands out seeds and asks children to grow them and record observations, the experience belongs to

    1. direct, purposeful experience
    2. verbal symbols
    3. visual symbols
    4. recordings
    Answer

    A. direct, purposeful experience

    The children do and handle real things.

  30. Which of the following statements is/are correct about Dale's Cone? 1. The base of the cone has direct, purposeful experience. 2. The top of the cone has demonstrations.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Statement 1 is right; the top has verbal symbols.

  31. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Radio is an audio-visual aid. 2. A herbarium is a collection of dried plants.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Radio is audio only; a herbarium holds dried pressed plants.

  32. Which of the following statements is/are correct about improvised aids? 1. They are made from low-cost or waste material. 2. They help children to develop creativity and skills.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are advantages of improvisation.

  33. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Overhead projectors and LCD projectors are non-projected aids. 2. Charts and models are non-projected aids.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Projectors are projected aids; charts and models are non-projected.

  34. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Dale's cone shows that abstract experience alone is enough for learning. 2. Dale's cone shows a movement from concrete to abstract.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The cone asks for a concrete base and then moves to abstract ideas.

  35. Which of the following statements is/are correct about the use of aids? 1. An aid should be checked before the class. 2. An aid should be used to replace the teacher's role.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Aids support the teacher; they do not replace the teacher.

  36. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. An aquarium keeps animals and plants in water. 2. A terrarium keeps animals and plants in water.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    A terrarium is a land habitat.

  37. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Flash cards are audio aids. 2. Radio is a visual aid.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    Flash cards are visual and radio is audio.

  38. Which of the following statements is/are correct about a good chart? 1. It should have a title and clear labels. 2. It should include as many ideas as possible on one sheet.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    A chart should be simple with few ideas.

  39. Match the aid with its type. P. Radio Q. Chart R. Film S. Specimen

    1. P-audio-visual, Q-visual, R-audio, S-visual
    2. P-audio, Q-audio-visual, R-visual, S-audio
    3. P-visual, Q-audio, R-audio-visual, S-audio
    4. P-audio, Q-visual, R-audio-visual, S-real object (visual)
    Answer

    D. P-audio, Q-visual, R-audio-visual, S-real object (visual)

    Radio is audio, chart is visual, film is audio-visual, and a specimen is a real object seen by the eye.

  40. Match the habitat aid with its use. P. Aquarium Q. Terrarium R. Herbarium

    1. P-small land habitat, Q-dried plants, R-water life
    2. P-dried plants, Q-water life, R-small land habitat
    3. P-water life, Q-small land habitat, R-dried plants
    4. P-water life, Q-dried plants, R-small land habitat
    Answer

    C. P-water life, Q-small land habitat, R-dried plants

    Aquarium is for water life, terrarium for land habitat, herbarium for dried plants.

  41. Match the improvised item with the standard apparatus it replaces. P. Cut plastic bottle top Q. Pen refill R. Bottle with wick and oil

    1. P-funnel, Q-spirit lamp, R-dropper
    2. P-dropper, Q-funnel, R-spirit lamp
    3. P-funnel, Q-dropper, R-spirit lamp
    4. P-spirit lamp, Q-funnel, R-dropper
    Answer

    C. P-funnel, Q-dropper, R-spirit lamp

    Bottle top acts as funnel, refill as dropper, wick bottle as lamp.

  42. Arrange these in Dale's cone from base to top: 1 Demonstration 2 Verbal symbols 3 Direct experience 4 Motion pictures

    1. 3, 4, 1, 2
    2. 2, 4, 1, 3
    3. 1, 3, 2, 4
    4. 3, 1, 4, 2
    Answer

    D. 3, 1, 4, 2

    Direct experience is lowest, then demonstration, motion pictures and finally verbal symbols.

  43. Which of the following is both a visual and a non-projected aid?

    1. A radio talk
    2. A film strip
    3. A cross-section model of a flower
    4. An overhead transparency
    Answer

    C. A cross-section model of a flower

    A physical model is seen directly and does not need projection.

  44. Which of the following best explains why real objects are valuable in biology?

    1. They need no care
    2. They are always cheaper than charts
    3. They remove the need for names
    4. They give direct sensory experience of structure
    Answer

    D. They give direct sensory experience of structure

    Real specimens allow children to observe and handle.

  45. Improvisation in science teaching is especially important in schools that

    1. have a fully equipped laboratory only
    2. have limited funds for apparatus
    3. do not teach science
    4. use no activities
    Answer

    B. have limited funds for apparatus

    Improvised apparatus makes practical work possible in low-resource schools.

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