Teaching Science: Methodology (Physical and Biological) · Chapter 4

Modern Methods: Micro-teaching, Team Teaching, Multimedia, Programmed Learning and CAI

What to remember

Micro-teaching is a scaled-down, skill-wise teaching practice (one skill, a short lesson of about 5-10 minutes, a small group) followed by feedback. It was developed at Stanford University by Dwight Allen in the 1960s.
Programmed learning uses small steps, active response and immediate feedback. Skinner gave the linear type; Crowder gave the branching type.
Team teaching, multimedia and CAI use more teachers, more media and the computer to make teaching richer, but they need planning and resources.

Micro-teaching

Micro-teaching is a training technique for teachers. A trainee teaches a small lesson (5-10 minutes) to a small group (about 5-10 pupils), practising one teaching skill at a time. It is called "teaching in miniature". It was started at Stanford University in the early 1960s, and Dwight Allen is its main name.

Micro-teaching cycle:

1. Plan: choose a skill and a short topic and prepare the lesson.
2. Teach: present the lesson (about 6 minutes) with a supervisor and peers watching.
3. Feedback: the supervisor tells the trainee what went well and what needs change (about 6 minutes).
4. Re-plan: make changes (about 12 minutes).
5. Re-teach: teach again to a new group of pupils (about 6 minutes).
6. Re-feedback: get feedback again (about 6 minutes).

The cycle goes on until the skill is mastered. Timings vary slightly between training programmes.

Common teaching skills practised:

Skill	Meaning
Set induction	Starting the lesson in an interesting way
Stimulus variation	Changing voice, movement and gestures to hold attention
Questioning (fluency, probing)	Asking clear questions and probing deeper
Reinforcement	Praising and encouraging right responses
Explaining	Making ideas clear with examples
Illustrating with examples	Using examples, models and charts
Use of blackboard	Neat and useful writing and drawing
Closure	Ending the lesson with a summary

Merits: it is skill-based and focused; the trainee is safe from the stress of a full class; feedback is immediate; it is economical.

Limits: it does not give practice of a full lesson, classroom control or the join of skills; it needs supervisors and time.

Team teaching

Two or more teachers plan, teach and assess a group of pupils together. It was developed in the USA in the 1950s.

Forms: a large group lesson by one expert, followed by small group work; teachers of different subjects (for example, physics and biology) take one topic together; or a senior teacher with junior teachers.
Steps: planning together, teaching in turns, evaluating together and feedback to the team.
Merits: uses the strong points of each teacher; gives variety to pupils; lets teachers learn from each other; handles large classes better.
Limits: needs time to plan together, a good time-table and teachers who can work in a team; there may be clash of styles; costly.

Multimedia in teaching

Multimedia means using more than one medium together: text, still pictures, sound, video, animation and graphics, often joined on a computer or smart board.

Why useful in science: it shows things that cannot be seen in class (such as the cell division, the working of the heart, a volcano, or distant planets), makes ideas concrete and keeps attention.
Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience (1946): shows that direct, purposeful experience is at the base and abstract symbols (words) are at the top. Learning with more senses is more real.
Examples: PowerPoint slides, educational videos, simulations, virtual labs, e-content and educational television or radio.
Merits: attractive, shows a process in motion, repeatable, can be done at the pupil's own speed.
Limits: needs electricity, devices and trained teachers; too much animation can distract; it cannot replace direct hands-on work.

Programmed learning

Programmed learning (programmed instruction) presents the content in small steps (frames), one after another in a planned order. The pupil responds to each frame and gets immediate feedback. The pupil works alone and at his or her own speed.

It is based on operant conditioning of B.F. Skinner. An early teaching machine was made by Sidney Pressey in the 1920s. Skinner's linear programme was developed in the 1950s.

Principles:

1. Small steps: content is split into easy frames.
2. Active responding: the learner answers every frame.
3. Immediate feedback (reinforcement): the right answer is shown at once.
4. Self-pacing: each learner works at his or her own speed.
5. Student testing: the programme is tried on pupils and improved.

Types:

Type	Linked name	Features
Linear (extrinsic)	Skinner	Same sequence for all; small steps; very few errors; learner constructs the answer
Branching (intrinsic)	Norman Crowder	Larger frames with multiple-choice questions; wrong answer sends the learner to a remedial branch
Mathetics	Thomas Gilbert	Based on analysing the skill and teaching it backwards in chains

Merits: individual attention; self-pacing; immediate feedback; the teacher's time is freed; good for revision and for slow learners.

Limits: a good programme is costly and slow to prepare; it can become dull; it does not build group skills, creativity or social feeling; it suits factual content better than deep ideas.

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)

In CAI, the computer presents content, asks questions, checks answers and gives feedback. It is a computerised form of programmed learning. It is also called computer-assisted learning (CAL).

Modes of CAI:

1. Drill and practice: repeated exercises to build fluency.
2. Tutorial: the computer teaches a new topic step by step.
3. Simulation: it imitates a real process or a dangerous experiment.
4. Educational games: learning through play.
5. Problem solving: the pupil uses the computer to solve problems.

Merits: it is interactive; it gives immediate feedback; it allows self-pacing; it is patient; it records the progress of each pupil; simulation makes risky experiments safe.

Limits: needs hardware, power and software; costly; pupil may have less contact with the teacher; software quality varies.

Related terms: ICT (information and communication technology), e-learning, blended learning (a mix of classroom and online) and flipped classroom (the pupil studies the content at home and uses class time for activities).

Example of a linear programmed sequence

Topic: food chain.

Frame 1: "A food chain starts with green plants because plants make their own food. A plant that makes its own food is called a ______." (producer)
Frame 2: "An animal that eats plants is a herbivore. A goat eats grass, so a goat is a ______." (herbivore)
Frame 3: "A tiger eats goats. An animal that eats other animals is a ______." (carnivore)

Each frame is small, the pupil writes the answer, and the correct answer is shown at once. In a branching programme, a wrong option sends the pupil to an extra explanation before the main path continues.

Comparing the modern methods

Method	Main aim	Who is active	Key limit
Micro-teaching	Mastery of one teaching skill	Trainee teacher	Not a full lesson
Team teaching	Use of many teachers' strengths	Team of teachers	Needs joint planning
Multimedia	Rich, multi-sense presentation	Teacher and pupil	Needs devices and power
Programmed learning	Self-paced individual learning	Pupil	Costly to prepare
CAI	Interactive learning on computer	Pupil	Needs hardware and software

Classroom angle

Use multimedia to show what cannot be seen in the room, and then do a related hands-on activity.
Use programmed or computer material for revision, slow learners and self-study.
A teacher can use micro-teaching ideas without any training set-up, by practising one skill (such as questioning) in a normal class and asking a colleague for feedback.
Technology is a tool and not a replacement for the teacher; good teaching needs a human touch.

Choosing among the modern methods

Micro-teaching is chosen when a teacher wants to improve a single skill. Team teaching is chosen when a topic needs more than one subject expert or when the group is large. Multimedia is chosen when pupils cannot see the process directly. Programmed learning and CAI are chosen for self-study, revision and remedial work. The choice should depend on the objective, the pupils and the facilities, because even the best tool fails if the school has no power or the teacher is not trained to use it.

Exam traps

1. Micro-teaching is for training *teachers* in skills; it is not a method for teaching pupils in a normal class.
2. Micro-teaching time: the teaching part is short (5-10 minutes), not a full period.
3. Linear vs branching: Skinner = linear; Crowder = branching.
4. Programmed learning relies on operant conditioning and not on classical conditioning.
5. Team teaching has two or more teachers; it is different from a "guest lecture".
6. Multimedia means several media together, not just a video.
7. CAI is not "using a computer for typing"; it must teach and give feedback.
8. Simulation shows a process on screen and does not give real material handling.

One-liners

1. Micro-teaching was developed at Stanford University.
2. Dwight Allen is linked with micro-teaching.
3. Micro-teaching practises one skill at a time.
4. A micro-lesson lasts about 5-10 minutes.
5. Team teaching uses two or more teachers.
6. Multimedia combines text, sound, pictures and video.
7. Edgar Dale proposed the Cone of Experience.
8. Programmed learning gives immediate feedback.
9. Skinner designed the linear programme.
10. Crowder designed the branching programme.
11. CAI modes include drill, tutorial and simulation.
12. Programmed learning allows self-pacing.

Practice questions

Micro-teaching was first developed at
1. University of Madras
2. Oxford University
3. Stanford University
4. Harvard University
Answer
C. Stanford University
Dwight Allen and colleagues developed it at Stanford.
Micro-teaching is mainly linked with
1. Norman Crowder
2. B.F. Skinner
3. Edgar Dale
4. Dwight Allen
Answer
D. Dwight Allen
Allen is the main name.
A micro-teaching lesson usually lasts about
1. 30 to 35 minutes
2. 5 to 10 minutes
3. 60 minutes
4. 45 to 50 minutes
Answer
B. 5 to 10 minutes
It is a short lesson.
In micro-teaching, a trainee practises
1. all skills together
2. one teaching skill at a time
3. only the final examination
4. the whole syllabus
Answer
B. one teaching skill at a time
The focus is on a single skill.
Which of these is the correct order of the micro-teaching cycle?
1. Re-plan, teach, re-feedback, feedback, re-teach
2. Feedback, teach, re-teach, re-plan, re-feedback
3. Teach, feedback, re-plan, re-teach, re-feedback
4. Teach, re-teach, feedback, re-plan, re-feedback
Answer
C. Teach, feedback, re-plan, re-teach, re-feedback
Teach, feedback, re-plan, re-teach, re-feedback.
Team teaching means
1. one teacher teaches many classes
2. pupils teach each other only
3. a teacher teaches by computer
4. two or more teachers teach a group together
Answer
D. two or more teachers teach a group together
A team plans and teaches jointly.
Multimedia in teaching means using
1. more than one medium together
2. only a blackboard
3. only a textbook
4. only the radio
Answer
A. more than one medium together
Text, sound, pictures and video combine.
The Cone of Experience was proposed by
1. Dwight Allen
2. Edgar Dale
3. B.F. Skinner
4. John Dewey
Answer
B. Edgar Dale
Dale's cone puts direct experience at the base.
The linear programme was designed by
1. Norman Crowder
2. Sidney Pressey
3. Edgar Dale
4. B.F. Skinner
Answer
D. B.F. Skinner
Skinner gave the linear (extrinsic) programme.
The branching (intrinsic) programme was designed by
1. Thomas Gilbert
2. Dwight Allen
3. Norman Crowder
4. B.F. Skinner
Answer
C. Norman Crowder
Crowder gave the branching type.
Programmed learning is based on the theory of
1. insight learning
2. classical conditioning
3. operant conditioning
4. latent learning
Answer
C. operant conditioning
Skinner's operant conditioning is its base.
A programmed learning frame is
1. a final examination
2. a small step of content followed by a response
3. a group discussion
4. a full chapter
Answer
B. a small step of content followed by a response
Content is given in small frames.
Which of these is NOT a mode of computer-assisted instruction?
1. Drill and practice
2. Lecture only
3. Tutorial
4. Simulation
Answer
B. Lecture only
Lecture is not a CAI mode.
Which of the following is a teaching skill practised in micro-teaching?
1. Preparing the timetable
2. Marking the register
3. Collecting fees
4. Set induction
Answer
D. Set induction
Set induction is the skill of starting a lesson well.
Reinforcement as a teaching skill means
1. giving homework
2. punishing wrong answers
3. encouraging and praising right responses
4. avoiding questions
Answer
C. encouraging and praising right responses
Reinforcement strengthens the desired behaviour.
In programmed learning, the learner works
1. only at the speed of the class
2. only in a group
3. at his or her own speed
4. only with the teacher
Answer
C. at his or her own speed
Self-pacing is a basic principle.
Which type of programme sends a learner with a wrong answer to a remedial branch?
1. Branching programme
2. Linear programme
3. Lecture
4. Demonstration
Answer
A. Branching programme
Crowder's branching type does this.
The early teaching machine of the 1920s was made by
1. Norman Crowder
2. B.F. Skinner
3. Dwight Allen
4. Sidney Pressey
Answer
D. Sidney Pressey
Pressey made an early teaching machine.
Showing the beating of the heart in motion through a video is an example of
1. micro-teaching
2. multimedia use
3. team teaching
4. a project
Answer
B. multimedia use
The video shows what cannot be seen directly.
A trainee practises only the skill of questioning for six minutes before a small group. This is
1. CAI
2. team teaching
3. a lecture
4. micro-teaching
Answer
D. micro-teaching
One skill, short time, small group.
A physics teacher and a biology teacher plan and teach 'Light and the eye' together. This is
1. team teaching
2. a project
3. programmed learning
4. micro-teaching
Answer
A. team teaching
Teachers of different subjects teach one topic together.
A learner answers each small step, and the right answer is shown at once. This is the principle of
1. delayed reward
2. group work
3. rote learning
4. immediate feedback
Answer
D. immediate feedback
Immediate feedback strengthens learning.
A computer simulation of a dangerous chemical reaction is useful because it
1. needs no devices
2. replaces all real experiments
3. gives safe experience of a risky process
4. works without electricity
Answer
C. gives safe experience of a risky process
Simulation is safe, but it does not replace real handling.
A major limit of programmed learning is that it
1. does not develop group skills and creativity
2. cannot be self-paced
3. is always cheap to make
4. gives no feedback
Answer
A. does not develop group skills and creativity
A good programme is costly and individual.
A major limit of team teaching is that it
1. needs no teachers
2. avoids pupil groups
3. needs joint planning and a suitable timetable
4. is useful only for one pupil
Answer
C. needs joint planning and a suitable timetable
Teachers must plan together.
A major limit of micro-teaching is that it
1. gives no feedback
2. does not give practice of a full lesson
3. cannot train any skill
4. is unsafe for trainees
Answer
B. does not give practice of a full lesson
It trains one skill at a time.
Which is a merit of CAI?
1. It records the progress of each pupil
2. It needs no hardware
3. It replaces the teacher fully
4. It suits all topics equally
Answer
A. It records the progress of each pupil
Records of progress and immediate feedback are merits.
A pupil studies the content at home by video and uses the class time for activities. This is called
1. drill and practice
2. team teaching
3. micro-teaching
4. a flipped classroom
Answer
D. a flipped classroom
In a flipped classroom, home and class roles are reversed.
A computer asks a question, checks the answer and shows the next step. This is closest to
1. a project
2. computerised programmed learning
3. a lecture
4. a field trip
Answer
B. computerised programmed learning
CAI is a computerised form of programmed instruction.
Which skill is being practised when a teacher changes voice and movement to hold attention?
1. Reinforcement
2. Closure
3. Set induction
4. Stimulus variation
Answer
D. Stimulus variation
Varying stimuli keeps attention.
Which skill is practised when the teacher ends the lesson with a short summary?
1. Closure
2. Set induction
3. Probing
4. Stimulus variation
Answer
A. Closure
Closure ties up the lesson.
Consider the statements about micro-teaching. 1. It is a training technique for teachers. 2. It practises many skills at one time. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
One skill at a time is practised.
Consider the statements about programmed learning. 1. Skinner's programme is linear. 2. Crowder's programme is linear. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Crowder's is branching.
Consider the statements about team teaching. 1. It uses two or more teachers. 2. It can use large group and small group sessions. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct.
Consider the statements about multimedia. 1. It combines text, sound and pictures. 2. It can fully replace hands-on activities. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
It cannot replace direct experience.
Consider the statements about CAI. 1. Simulation is a mode of CAI. 2. CAI gives no feedback to the learner. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Immediate feedback is a merit of CAI.
Consider the statements about programmed learning. 1. It allows self-pacing. 2. It presents content in small steps. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are principles.
Consider the statements about micro-teaching. 1. Feedback is a key part of the cycle. 2. The cycle has no re-teach step. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Re-plan and re-teach follow the first feedback.
Consider the statements about the Cone of Experience. 1. It was proposed by Edgar Dale. 2. It puts abstract words at the base. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Direct purposeful experience is at the base.
Consider the statements about branching programmes. 1. They use multiple-choice questions. 2. They send all learners along the same sequence. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
A branching programme sends learners along different paths.
Consider the statements about team teaching. 1. It gives no variety to pupils. 2. It lets teachers learn from each other. Which of the statements is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
It gives variety and peer learning.
Match the name with the contribution: (A) Dwight Allen (B) Skinner (C) Crowder (D) Edgar Dale; (1) micro-teaching (2) linear programme (3) branching programme (4) Cone of Experience
1. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
2. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
3. A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
4. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
Answer
B. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Allen - micro-teaching; Skinner - linear; Crowder - branching; Dale - cone.
Match the skill with its description: (A) Set induction (B) Closure (C) Reinforcement (D) Stimulus variation; (1) starting the lesson (2) ending the lesson (3) praising correct answers (4) changing voice and gestures
1. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
2. A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
3. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
4. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Answer
D. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Each skill is matched with its action.
Match the CAI mode with its use: (A) Drill and practice (B) Tutorial (C) Simulation (D) Educational game; (1) repeated exercises (2) teaching a new topic (3) imitating a real process (4) learning through play
1. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
2. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
3. A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
4. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
Answer
B. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Each mode is matched with its use.
Match the method with its key feature: (A) Micro-teaching (B) Team teaching (C) Programmed learning (D) CAI; (1) one skill, small class (2) many teachers (3) small steps and feedback (4) computer-based interaction
1. A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
2. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
3. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
4. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
Answer
C. A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Each method is matched with its feature.

Page 1 of 1

Chapter quiz · 10 questions

0/10 answered

On what you just read, from the live question bank. 🔒 Answers and solutions are shown to registered students (free).
अध्याय पढ़ने के बाद अभ्यास करें।

1.The fragmentation method of reproduction is shown in ______
2.Through which method of cell division are the diploid chromosomes divided into haploid gametes?
3.Mendel obtained F₂ progeny from F1 generation plants by the method of ________.
4.Why are micro-nutrients important for plants?
5.Which of the following is NOT a method of reproduction by a solitary individual organism?
6.Which of the following is NOT a method of introducing desirable character in crop varieties?
7.Which of the following is an asexual method of reproduction in organisms like amoeba?
8.Which of the following methods is used to break the small stones made into the kidneys into fine particles?
9.Which of the following methods is used for refining nickel metal?
10.Which of the following methods can be used for separating a mixture of NaCl and NH 4 CI?

10 left. You can check any time.