2. THE REVOLT OF 1857 (GREAT REBELLION / FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE)

2. THE REVOLT OF 1857 (GREAT REBELLION / FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE)

Called by various names: Sepoy Mutiny (British colonial term), Indian Mutiny, Revolt of 1857, or "First War of Indian Independence" (term popularised by V.D. Savarkar in his 1909 book The Indian War of Independence 1857).

2.1 Causes

A. Political Causes

• Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie) — annexation of Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, Sambalpur for want of natural heirs.
• Annexation of Awadh (Oudh) in 1856 by Lord Dalhousie on grounds of misgovernance — deeply resented, displaced Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, and disbanded/unemployed thousands of Awadhi soldiers who formed a large part of the Bengal Army.
• Denial/reduction of pensions and privileges to former rulers — e.g., Nana Sahib (adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II) was denied his adoptive father's pension/title.
• Insult to the Mughal royal family — Bahadur Shah Zafar's heirs told they would have to leave the Red Fort and lose the imperial title.

B. Economic Causes

• Heavy land revenue settlements (Permanent, Ryotwari, Mahalwari) impoverished peasants; loss of land to moneylenders.
• Destruction of traditional Indian handicrafts industry by cheap British machine-made goods; deindustrialisation.
• Economic drain of wealth to Britain.
• Discriminatory tariff policies favouring British goods.

C. Social & Religious Causes

• Fear of forced Christian conversion — activities of Christian missionaries seen as backed by the state.
• Social reform legislations (Widow Remarriage Act 1856, abolition of Sati 1829) seen by conservative sections as interference in religion/tradition (even though these were progressive reforms).
• General racial arrogance and discrimination by the British towards Indians.

D. Military Causes

• Discrimination against Indian sepoys — lower pay, poor promotion prospects (capped at rank of Subedar), racial insults from British officers.
• General Service Enlistment Act, 1856 — required sepoys to serve overseas ("Kala Pani" crossing), against caste/religious beliefs of many.
• Indian sepoys (over 200,000) vastly outnumbered British troops in India (~40,000), giving confidence to revolt.

E. Immediate/Trigger Cause

• Introduction of the new Enfield rifle with cartridges greased with cow and pig fat — had to be bitten off before loading — offensive to both Hindu (cow sacred) and Muslim (pig forbidden) sepoys.
• Mangal Pandey, a sepoy of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry at Barrackpore, revolted on 29 March 1857, attacked his British officers; he was arrested and hanged on 8 April 1857 — became the spark and later a symbol of the revolt.
• Main outbreak began at Meerut on 10 May 1857, when sepoys of the 3rd Native Cavalry (who had refused the cartridges and been imprisoned) were freed by fellow sepoys; the revolt spread from there to Delhi by 11 May 1857.

2.2 Major Centres, Leaders and Course of the Revolt

Centre	Leader	Notes
Delhi	Bahadur Shah Zafar II (last Mughal emperor)	Sepoys reached Delhi on 11 May 1857 and proclaimed the aged, reluctant Bahadur Shah Zafar as Emperor of India — gave the revolt a symbolic all-India legitimacy. British recaptured Delhi in September 1857; Zafar captured, tried, exiled to Rangoon (Burma), died in captivity in 1862. His sons executed by Major William Hodson.
Kanpur (Cawnpore)	Nana Sahib (Dhondu Pant), assisted by Tantia Tope (his general) and Azimullah Khan	Nana Sahib declared himself Peshwa; laid siege to British garrison; after initial British surrender, Bibighar massacre of British women and children occurred (June 1857), provoking brutal British reprisal under General Henry Havelock/Neill. Nana Sahib disappeared after defeat; fate unknown.
Jhansi	Rani Lakshmibai	Widow of Raja Gangadhar Rao; Jhansi annexed under Doctrine of Lapse (her adopted son not recognised as heir). She led fierce resistance against General Hugh Rose; escaped Jhansi, joined Tantia Tope, captured Gwalior; died fighting at Kotah-ki-Serai near Gwalior on 17/18 June 1858, dressed as a soldier. Famous line associated with her: "Main apni Jhansi nahi doongi." Called "the Joan of Arc of India" by some British writers.
Lucknow (Awadh)	Begum Hazrat Mahal	Wife of deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah; declared her son Birjis Qadr as Nawab; led resistance in Lucknow; after British recapture, escaped to Nepal where she died (1879), refusing British offers of pension/pardon.
Bihar (Jagdishpur/Arrah)	Kunwar Singh (Veer Kunwar Singh)	~80-year-old zamindar of Jagdishpur; fought British forces skilfully, defeated them at several points; died shortly after a final victory near Jagdishpur in 1858.
Faizabad	Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah	Religious leader, key military strategist of the revolt in Awadh; killed 1858.
Bareilly	Khan Bahadur Khan	Led revolt in Rohilkhand.
Gwalior	Tantia Tope	Nana Sahib's able general; continued guerrilla resistance after fall of Kanpur and Jhansi; eventually betrayed, captured, and hanged by the British in April 1859.
Faizabad/Central India (later phase)	—	Revolt continued as scattered guerrilla resistance into 1858-59.

2.3 Areas NOT Affected / Limited Spread

• The revolt was largely confined to North and Central India — the Gangetic plain, Awadh, Rohilkhand, Bundelkhand, parts of Bihar.
• Madras, Bombay presidencies, Punjab, Bengal (Lower), and princely states like Hyderabad, Mysore, Kashmir, Travancore remained largely unaffected or loyal.
• Many Indian princes (e.g., Scindia of Gwalior initially, Holkar, the Nizam of Hyderabad, Sikh chiefs of Punjab) helped the British, which was a major factor behind British success.

2.4 Suppression

• British recaptured Delhi (Sept 1857), Kanpur (Dec 1857, under Colin Campbell), Lucknow (March 1858), Jhansi & Gwalior (June 1858 under Hugh Rose).
• By 1859, the revolt was fully suppressed; Tantia Tope was the last major leader, captured and executed April 1859.
• Lord Canning was the Governor-General/first Viceroy during and after the revolt.

2.5 Nature and Character of the Revolt (Historiographical Debate)

• British historians (e.g., T.R. Holmes) called it a mere "Sepoy Mutiny" — a military mutiny with no wider significance.
• Indian nationalist historian V.D. Savarkar termed it "The Indian War of Independence, 1857" — a planned national revolt.
• Modern consensus: It was not a fully coordinated national movement (lacked a common ideology, unified leadership, and did not spread to all of India), but it combined a sepoy mutiny with widespread civil rebellion by peasants, artisans, and dispossessed rulers — a very significant popular uprising with genuine anti-British sentiment, even if regionally limited.

2.6 Consequences of the Revolt of 1857

• Government of India Act, 1858: Rule of India transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown; Company's rule ended.
• Post of Governor-General additionally became Viceroy (direct representative of the Crown); Lord Canning became the first Viceroy.
• Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1 November 1858): Promised religious non-interference, equal treatment of Indians, and honoured existing treaties with princely states (ended policy of annexation like Doctrine of Lapse).
• Reorganisation of the Indian Army: Ratio of European to Indian troops increased; recruitment shifted to so-called "martial races" (Punjabis, Gurkhas, Sikhs); artillery kept mainly in European hands; sepoys from Awadh/Bihar (who had revolted) recruited less; army organised on the principle of "divide and counterbalance."
• Policy of divide and rule intensified between Hindus and Muslims, and between princely states and British India.
• End of the policy of Westernisation/reform for a while; British became more conservative and cautious about interfering in Indian religious/social customs.
• Marked the end of the old Mughal Empire formally.

Key Facts / Quick Revision Points — Revolt of 1857

• Started: 10 May 1857, Meerut. Immediate cause: greased cartridges.
• Mangal Pandey — 34th BNI, Barrackpore, revolted 29 March 1857, hanged 8 April 1857.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar — symbolic overall leader, exiled to Rangoon.
• Nana Sahib (Kanpur), Tantia Tope (Kanpur/Gwalior), Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow), Kunwar Singh (Bihar).
• Government of India Act 1858 ended Company rule; Crown rule (British Raj) began.
• V.D. Savarkar called it the "First War of Indian Independence."
• Rani Lakshmibai died at Kotah-ki-Serai, near Gwalior, 1858.

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