Family, Marriage and Kinship

What to remember

• The family is the basic social unit. India has nuclear, joint and extended families, and the joint family is slowly giving way to nuclear and "joint-in-function" forms.
• Marriage in India is shaped by religion, caste rules (endogamy) and laws such as the Hindu Marriage Act and the Special Marriage Act. Kinship links people by blood (consanguineal) and by marriage (affinal).
• Urbanisation, education, migration, women's work and globalisation are changing family size, marriage age and choice of partner.

Types of family

A family is a group related by blood, marriage or adoption, living together and sharing resources, with responsibility for children.

Iravati Karve described the joint family as a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, take part in common worship and are related by kinship. A. M. Shah stressed that the family is a changing "household" unit and that the nuclear household can be part of a wider joint set-up. I. P. Desai spoke of "functional" joint families, where members live apart but still help each other with money and rituals.

Features of the traditional joint family: large size, shared kitchen, common property, authority of the eldest male (karta), strong duty to elders and respect for age, and religious unity. Merits are social security, shared child care and cultural continuity. Demerits are lack of privacy, conflicts, low freedom for women and the young, and the burden on earning members.

Matrilineal groups in India include the Khasi and Garo of Meghalaya and some communities in Kerala, where descent and inheritance pass through the mother's line.

Changes in the Indian family

• A rise in nuclear and single-parent households, and smaller family size.
• More women in paid work and in decision-making, though unpaid care work remains high.
• Migration to cities and abroad, leaving older persons behind. The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act makes children responsible for supporting parents.
• Education, nuclear housing and mobile phones keep "joint" ties through technology.
• Old joint families persist in rural and business communities.

Marriage: meaning and forms

Marriage is a socially approved union that creates rights, duties and kin ties. In Hindu tradition, it is a sacrament (samskara), not just a contract. In Islam, it is a contract (nikah). In Christianity, it is a sacrament. Under civil law it is a legal contract.

Polyandry is found among a few groups such as the Toda and certain Himalayan communities. Polygyny is rare and is banned by the Hindu Marriage Act.

Eight forms of Hindu marriage in the old texts:

Marriage laws

Other personal laws include the Indian Christian Marriage Act and the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act. The Constitution's Directive Principle Article 44 urges a Uniform Civil Code, which has not yet been fully implemented. Kandukuri Veeresalingam in Andhra led the movement for widow remarriage in the 19th century.

Kinship

Kinship is the web of relations based on blood and marriage. Consanguineal kin are related by blood (parents, siblings, children). Affinal kin are related by marriage (spouse, in-laws). Descent can be traced in a lineage (known ancestor), a clan or gotra (believed common ancestor), and a larger phratry. Kinship terms differ by region and show how people are classified.

Iravati Karve's study of kinship divided India into four regions: northern, central, southern and eastern. In the south, marriage to cross-cousins (for example, mother's brother's daughter) and to the elder sister's daughter is accepted in many communities, including among Telugu-speaking families. In the north, marriage within the village and with close relatives is avoided, and the rule of village exogamy is strong.

Rules of residence:

Most Indian communities are patrilocal and patrilineal, with matrilocal exceptions in the north-east.

Social change: urbanisation and globalisation

Urbanisation moves people to cities, where small flats, high costs and job mobility favour nuclear households. Education raises the marriage age and women's independence. Globalisation brings new values of individual choice, love marriage, dual-earner couples, live-in relationships and later or single parenthood. At the same time, matchmaking websites and expensive weddings show continuity of tradition. Arranged marriage is still common, but it is increasingly "arranged with consent". Inter-caste and inter-religion marriage is rising slowly but still faces resistance, sometimes violence. Dowry persists despite the law.

Family and gender

The Indian family is often patriarchal, with inheritance and authority passing through men. Women traditionally move to the husband's home at marriage. Reforms have changed this: the Hindu Succession Act now gives daughters equal rights in ancestral property, and the Domestic Violence Act gives women legal protection within the home. Women's education, jobs and self-help groups have increased their voice. Even so, issues remain, such as the preference for sons, dowry harassment, child marriage and the double burden of paid work and housework.

Divorce, widowhood and remarriage

Traditional Hindu thought did not treat marriage as ending. The Hindu Marriage Act brought grounds for divorce, such as cruelty, desertion and adultery, and also allows divorce by mutual consent. Widow remarriage, once forbidden among upper castes, was legalised in the 19th century after reformers pressed for it, but many widows still face stigma. Muslim law allows divorce in set forms, and the law now protects women's right to maintenance. Christian and Parsi communities have their own divorce laws.

Family and social security

The family has long been the main source of care for children and the old. With smaller families and migration, public services and laws are taking up part of this role. Schemes for pensions, widow and old-age support and child welfare supplement family care. Anganwadi centres and school meals help children when families are poor.

Exam traps

• Hypergamy vs hypogamy: hypergamy is the woman marrying up.
• Endogamy vs exogamy: within versus outside a group.
• Polygyny vs polyandry: many wives versus many husbands.
• Sarda Act vs Prohibition of Child Marriage Act: the 1929 law came first and the 2006 law replaced it.
• Special Marriage Act vs Hindu Marriage Act: the first is secular and civil, the second is for Hindus (including Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs).
• Matrilineal vs matrilocal: descent versus residence.
• Consanguineal vs affinal: blood versus marriage.
• Karve vs Shah vs Desai: Karve defined the joint family; Desai wrote on functional jointness.

One-liners

• 1. A nuclear family has parents and unmarried children.
• 2. The karta is the head of a joint family.
• 3. The Khasi and Garo follow matrilineal descent.
• 4. Endogamy means marrying within one's own group.
• 5. Gandharva marriage is a love marriage in the old texts.
• 6. The Special Marriage Act allows civil marriage across religions.
• 7. The Hindu Marriage Act upholds monogamy.
• 8. The Dowry Prohibition Act bans dowry.
• 9. Instant triple talaq was made illegal by a 2019 law.
• 10. Karve divided India into four kinship regions.
• 11. Neolocal residence means a new home for the couple.
• 12. Article 44 mentions the Uniform Civil Code.

Practice questions

1. A family made up of parents and their unmarried children is called

   1. Joint family
   2. Matrilineal family
   3. Nuclear family
   4. Extended family
   Answer

   C. Nuclear family

   This is the basic nuclear unit.

2. Descent traced through the mother's line is called

   1. Neolocal
   2. Avunculocal
   3. Patrilineal
   4. Matrilineal
   Answer

   D. Matrilineal

   Matrilineal descent follows the mother.

3. Which tribal communities of Meghalaya follow matrilineal descent?

   1. Bhil and Gond
   2. Khasi and Garo
   3. Toda and Naga
   4. Santhal and Munda
   Answer

   B. Khasi and Garo

   The Khasi and Garo trace descent through mothers.

4. Marriage within one's own group such as caste is called

   1. Endogamy
   2. Hypergamy
   3. Exogamy
   4. Polyandry
   Answer

   A. Endogamy

   Endogamy means marrying within the group.

5. Marriage outside a specified group such as gotra is called

   1. Monogamy
   2. Exogamy
   3. Hypogamy
   4. Endogamy
   Answer

   B. Exogamy

   Exogamy requires marrying outside the group.

6. Marriage of one husband to several wives is called

   1. Polygyny
   2. Endogamy
   3. Monogamy
   4. Polyandry
   Answer

   A. Polygyny

   Polygyny is many wives; polyandry is many husbands.

7. A woman marrying a man of higher social rank is called

   1. Neolocal marriage
   2. Hypogamy
   3. Exogamy
   4. Hypergamy
   Answer

   D. Hypergamy

   Hypergamy is marrying up, also called Anuloma.

8. Pratiloma marriage corresponds to

   1. Endogamy
   2. Hypergamy
   3. Hypogamy
   4. Monogamy
   Answer

   C. Hypogamy

   A woman marrying a man of lower rank is Pratiloma.

9. Which of the following is a disapproved form of Hindu marriage?

   1. Brahma
   2. Prajapatya
   3. Gandharva
   4. Daiva
   Answer

   C. Gandharva

   Gandharva, Asura, Rakshasa and Paishacha are the four disapproved forms.

10. Which of the following is an approved form of Hindu marriage?

    1. Asura
    2. Arsha
    3. Rakshasa
    4. Paishacha
    Answer

    B. Arsha

    Brahma, Daiva, Arsha and Prajapatya are approved.

11. Marriage by force is known as

    1. Brahma
    2. Asura
    3. Gandharva
    4. Rakshasa
    Answer

    D. Rakshasa

    Rakshasa marriage meant capturing the bride.

12. The love marriage by mutual consent in the old texts was called

    1. Gandharva
    2. Paishacha
    3. Arsha
    4. Daiva
    Answer

    A. Gandharva

    Gandharva was by choice of the couple.

13. Couple living with the husband's family is called

    1. Avunculocal residence
    2. Matrilocal residence
    3. Patrilocal residence
    4. Neolocal residence
    Answer

    C. Patrilocal residence

    Patrilocal means with the husband's kin.

14. A couple setting up a new home separate from both families follow

    1. Neolocal residence
    2. Avunculocal residence
    3. Patrilocal residence
    4. Matrilocal residence
    Answer

    A. Neolocal residence

    Neolocal means a new household.

15. Which Act made monogamy the rule for Hindus?

    1. Dowry Prohibition Act
    2. Special Marriage Act
    3. Hindu Succession Act
    4. Hindu Marriage Act
    Answer

    D. Hindu Marriage Act

    The Hindu Marriage Act bans bigamy among Hindus.

16. Civil marriage across religions is allowed by the

    1. Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act
    2. Special Marriage Act
    3. Christian Marriage Act
    4. Hindu Marriage Act
    Answer

    B. Special Marriage Act

    The Special Marriage Act is secular and open to all.

17. Which Act bans giving and taking of dowry?

    1. Domestic Violence Act
    2. Hindu Succession Act
    3. Special Marriage Act
    4. Dowry Prohibition Act
    Answer

    D. Dowry Prohibition Act

    The Dowry Prohibition Act is the law.

18. The first law that fixed minimum age for marriage in British India was the

    1. Widow Remarriage Act
    2. Special Marriage Act
    3. Child Marriage Restraint Act
    4. Hindu Marriage Act
    Answer

    C. Child Marriage Restraint Act

    The Sarda Act of 1929 was the first age law.

19. Which law legalised widow remarriage among Hindus?

    1. Hindu Widow Remarriage Act
    2. Hindu Succession Act
    3. Sati Prohibition Regulation
    4. Child Marriage Restraint Act
    Answer

    A. Hindu Widow Remarriage Act

    The 19th-century Act legalised widow remarriage.

20. Which Constitutional Article urges a Uniform Civil Code?

    1. Article 17
    2. Article 44
    3. Article 21
    4. Article 14
    Answer

    B. Article 44

    Article 44 is a Directive Principle on a Uniform Civil Code.

21. Kinship by blood is called

    1. Affinal kinship
    2. Fictive kinship
    3. Ritual kinship
    4. Consanguineal kinship
    Answer

    D. Consanguineal kinship

    Consanguineal kin share blood.

22. Kinship by marriage is called

    1. Affinal kinship
    2. Consanguineal kinship
    3. Clan kinship
    4. Lineal kinship
    Answer

    A. Affinal kinship

    Affinal kin are related by marriage.

23. Who defined the joint family by common residence, kitchen, property and worship?

    1. Yogendra Singh
    2. Iravati Karve
    3. G. S. Ghurye
    4. M. N. Srinivas
    Answer

    B. Iravati Karve

    Karve gave this classic definition.

24. The head of a traditional joint family is called

    1. Gotra head
    2. Sarpanch
    3. Karta
    4. Mukhiya of a clan
    Answer

    C. Karta

    The karta is the senior male head.

25. A joint family whose members live apart but help each other with money and ritual is called

    1. Matrilineal family
    2. Fictive family
    3. Single-parent family
    4. Functional joint family
    Answer

    D. Functional joint family

    This idea was put forward by I. P. Desai.

26. Which of these is a trend in modern Indian families?

    1. Rise of nuclear households
    2. Increase in family size
    3. Disappearance of dowry
    4. End of arranged marriage
    Answer

    A. Rise of nuclear households

    Nuclear households are rising with urbanisation.

27. The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act mainly makes

    1. Parents responsible for children
    2. Children responsible for supporting parents
    3. Government fully pay for parents
    4. Marriage compulsory
    Answer

    B. Children responsible for supporting parents

    It obliges adult children to maintain their elderly parents.

28. Daughters were given equal coparcenary rights in ancestral property by an amendment to the

    1. Hindu Marriage Act
    2. Special Marriage Act
    3. Hindu Succession Act
    4. Dowry Prohibition Act
    Answer

    C. Hindu Succession Act

    The amended Hindu Succession Act gives daughters equal rights.

29. Instant triple talaq was made illegal by the

    1. Special Marriage Act
    2. Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act
    3. Hindu Marriage Act
    4. Dowry Prohibition Act
    Answer

    B. Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act

    A 2019 Act made it illegal.

30. Which is a common feature of kinship in South India found among many communities?

    1. Matrilocal residence for all
    2. Polyandry
    3. Strict village exogamy
    4. Marriage with the mother's brother's daughter
    Answer

    D. Marriage with the mother's brother's daughter

    Cross-cousin marriage is accepted in many southern communities.

31. Which reformer from Andhra worked for widow remarriage?

    1. Jyotiba Phule
    2. Dayanand Saraswati
    3. Kandukuri Veeresalingam
    4. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
    Answer

    C. Kandukuri Veeresalingam

    Veeresalingam led Telugu social reform.

32. In Hindu tradition, marriage is regarded mainly as a

    1. Sacrament
    2. Business contract
    3. Temporary union
    4. Political alliance
    Answer

    A. Sacrament

    Hindu marriage is a samskara.

33. Which Act gives civil protection to women from violence in the home?

    1. Special Marriage Act
    2. Dowry Prohibition Act
    3. Hindu Succession Act
    4. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act
    Answer

    D. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act

    The Domestic Violence Act provides relief and protection.

34. Statements about joint families: 1. They share a common kitchen and property. 2. Authority rests with the eldest male in the traditional form.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are traditional features.

35. Statements about marriage: 1. Endogamy means marrying outside the group. 2. Exogamy means marrying outside a specified group.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Endogamy is marriage within the group.

36. Statements about marriage laws: 1. The Special Marriage Act is secular. 2. The Hindu Marriage Act allows polygyny.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Hindu Marriage Act bans polygyny.

37. Statements about kinship: 1. Consanguineal kin are related by blood. 2. Affinal kin are related by marriage.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

38. Statements about residence: 1. Patrilocal means living with the wife's family. 2. Neolocal means setting up a new home.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Patrilocal means living with the husband's family.

39. Statements about changes in families: 1. Urbanisation favours nuclear families. 2. Women's education has no effect on marriage age.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Education raises the marriage age and independence.

40. Statements about the Khasi: 1. They follow matrilineal descent. 2. They follow polyandry as the norm.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Polyandry is not their norm.

41. Statements about Hindu marriage forms: 1. Brahma marriage is approved. 2. Asura marriage involves payment of bride-price and is disapproved.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

42. Statements about the Sarda Act: 1. It was the Child Marriage Restraint Act. 2. It was replaced by the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

43. Statements about globalisation and family: 1. It encourages individual choice in marriage. 2. It has completely ended arranged marriage.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Arranged marriage persists, so 2 is wrong.

44. Statements about karta: 1. The karta is usually the senior male. 2. The karta heads a nuclear family only.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The karta heads the joint family.

45. Statements about Article 44: 1. It is a Directive Principle. 2. It has been fully implemented across India.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    A Uniform Civil Code has not been fully implemented.