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Indian Society, Social Issues and Welfare · Chapter 3

Tribes and ethnicity in India

What to remember

  • Scheduled Tribes are listed under Article 342. The President notifies them for each state. The Fifth Schedule covers Scheduled Areas in most states, and the Sixth Schedule covers tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
  • Tribal policy moved from isolation to integration. Nehru's Tribal Panchsheel, the Tribal Sub-Plan, PESA (1996) and the Forest Rights Act (2006) are the key steps.
  • Andhra Pradesh has many tribal groups. Chenchu, Konda Reddi, Savara, Gadaba, Koya, Yerukala, Lambada (Sugali) and Jatapu are common exam names. Several of them are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).

Who is a tribe? Meaning and features

A tribe is a group of people who share a common territory, language, culture and name. They often have their own customary law and a headman or council. Tribes are also called Adivasi ("original inhabitants"). The Constitution does not define a tribe. It only says which communities are Scheduled Tribes.

Common features of tribal life:

  • Life is close to forest, hills and land.
  • Kinship and clan ties are strong.
  • Land is often held by the community.
  • Traditional councils settle disputes.
  • Festivals, songs and dance are part of daily life.

Tribal people live in many parts of India. The largest numbers are in central India (the "tribal belt" of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha and Maharashtra). The north-east has a high share of tribal people in the local population.

Classification of tribes

Scholars classify tribes in different ways.

BasisTypes or examples
Race (Risley, Guha)Negrito, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloid, Dravidian, Western Brachycephal, Nordic
RegionNorth-east, central, western, southern, island tribes
LanguageAustric, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan families
EconomyHunter-gatherers, shifting cultivators, settled farmers, pastoralists, artisans

Examples by region:

  • North-east: Naga, Mizo, Khasi, Garo, Bodo.
  • Central India: Gond, Santhal, Munda, Oraon, Ho, Baiga.
  • Western India: Bhil, Warli, Mina.
  • South India: Toda, Irula, Kurumba, Chenchu, Koya.
  • Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Great Andamanese, Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese, Shompen.

The Gond are among the largest tribal communities in India, and the Bhil are another very large group. Shifting cultivation is called jhum in the north-east and podu in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)

PVTGs are the most backward among Scheduled Tribes. The Dhebar Commission (1960-61) first identified groups with a pre-agricultural level of technology, a falling or stagnant population, very low literacy and a subsistence economy. They were first called Primitive Tribal Groups. The name was changed to Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups later.

PVTGs are given special plans called Conservation-cum-Development plans. A special mission for PVTG development has also been announced by the Union government in recent years (check the latest official release for details).

AP PVTG groups at recall level:

  • Chenchu (forest areas of the Nallamala hills)
  • Konda Reddi
  • Konda Savara
  • Gutob Gadaba and Bodo Gadaba
  • Porja groups
  • Kutia and Dongria Khond (in the Eastern Ghats areas)
  • Thoti and Kolam (found mainly in Telangana)

Ethnicity and tribal identity

Ethnicity means belonging to a group with a shared descent, language, customs and sense of identity. India has many ethnic groups, and tribal communities are among the oldest. Ethnic feeling can be a source of pride and cultural richness. It can also lead to conflict when a group feels left out of power, land and jobs.

Three ideas help in exams:

  • Assimilation: a tribe slowly merges into the larger society and loses its own culture.
  • Integration: a tribe joins national life but keeps its own culture. This is the aim of Indian policy.
  • Acculturation: two cultures meet and each takes something from the other, such as dress, food or festivals.

Contact with markets, roads, schools and religion has changed tribal life. Some tribes are now settled farmers, and many tribal youth work in towns. Tribal people use their own languages, but many of these languages have no script, so children find school hard when teaching is only in a state language. Mother-tongue teaching in the early years is a major demand.

Constitutional provisions

ProvisionWhat it says
Article 342List of Scheduled Tribes for each state/UT
Article 244(1) and Fifth ScheduleAdministration and control of Scheduled Areas and tribes in states other than the four north-eastern states
Article 244(2) and Sixth ScheduleAutonomous Districts and Regions in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram
Article 46State to promote education and economic interests of weaker sections, especially SCs and STs
Article 330 and 332Reserved seats for STs in Lok Sabha and state assemblies
Article 338ANational Commission for Scheduled Tribes (added by the 89th Amendment, 2003)
Article 275Grants from the Union for tribal welfare
Article 15(4), 16(4)Special provisions and reservation in jobs and education

Fifth Schedule: The Governor can make regulations to stop land transfer from tribals to non-tribals. A Tribes Advisory Council advises the Governor. The Governor may apply or not apply a central or state law to a Scheduled Area.

Sixth Schedule: Autonomous District Councils and Regional Councils have powers to make laws on land, forests, village administration and some social customs. They also run courts for tribal disputes and collect some taxes.

Tribal policy and development

  • 1. Isolation (colonial period): Some areas were treated as "excluded areas" to keep tribes apart.
  • 2. Integration approach: After 1947, the policy aimed to let tribes develop with their own culture. Verrier Elwin influenced it.
  • 3. Tribal Panchsheel: Nehru's five principles. Tribes should develop on their own genius. Their rights in land and forest must be respected. Teams of tribal people should be trained for administration. Development should not be forced on them. Success should be judged by human character, not by money spent.
  • 4. Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP): Started in the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-75). It ensures that funds are set aside for tribal areas in proportion to the tribal population. In AP, Integrated Tribal Development Agencies (ITDAs) carry out the work in tribal areas.
  • 5. PESA, 1996: The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act gives the Gram Sabha strong powers over resources, minor forest produce, land alienation and local plans in Scheduled Areas.
  • 6. Forest Rights Act, 2006: Recognises individual and community forest rights of Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers. It also recognises rights to collect minor forest produce and to protect and manage community forest resources.
  • 7. Other bodies: Ministry of Tribal Affairs (created in 1999), TRIFED (marketing of tribal produce), Eklavya Model Residential Schools and Ashram Schools. In AP, the Girijan Cooperative Corporation (GCC) buys minor forest produce from tribal collectors.

Tribal problems

ProblemCause or effect
Land alienationNon-tribal people take land by loans or fraud; the Land Transfer Regulation tries to stop it
DisplacementDams, mines and industries take tribal land
Forest lossRestrictions on forest use reduce livelihood
DebtMoneylenders and traders exploit tribal people
Poor healthMalnutrition, sickle-cell disease, malaria, poor services
Low literacyRemote hamlets, language gap and dropouts
Identity and unrestAlienation can feed extremist violence in some regions

AP has a special land law for tribal areas, the AP Scheduled Areas Land Transfer Regulation (commonly called LTR 1/70), which bans transfer of tribal land to non-tribals in the Scheduled Areas.

AP tribes at recall level

  • Chenchu: forest-dwelling PVTG of the Nallamala hills; hunters and gatherers, now also work with forest produce.
  • Savara (Sora): hill people of the north-east coast; known for wall paintings.
  • Konda Reddi: hill tribe of the Godavari region; PVTG.
  • Koya: large tribe of the Godavari region; known for the Koya dance.
  • Yerukala: Scheduled Tribe in AP, known for basket weaving and fortune telling.
  • Lambada (Sugali, Banjara): once traders in grain and salt; colourful dress and embroidery.
  • Jatapu, Gadaba, Konda Dora, Khond: tribes of the Visakhapatnam and Srikakulam hill regions.

Exam traps

  • Scheduled Areas are under the Fifth Schedule; Autonomous Districts of four north-east states are under the Sixth. Do not swap them.
  • Article 342 is for Scheduled Tribes; Article 341 is for Scheduled Castes.
  • PESA is 1996; Forest Rights Act is 2006. Both are different from the Tribal Sub-Plan (1974-75).
  • Tribal Panchsheel came from Nehru; it is not an international agreement (the other "Panchsheel" is the 1954 India-China principles).
  • The Dhebar Commission identified Primitive Tribal Groups; it was not about Scheduled Castes.
  • National Commission for Scheduled Tribes is Article 338A; the SC Commission is Article 338.
  • Jhum is shifting cultivation in the north-east; Podu is the name in AP and Odisha.
  • Chenchu are in Nallamala forests; Toda are in the Nilgiris.

One-liners

  • Article 342 lists Scheduled Tribes.
  • Fifth Schedule: Scheduled Areas outside the four north-east states.
  • Sixth Schedule: Autonomous Councils of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
  • PESA was passed in 1996.
  • The Forest Rights Act was passed in 2006.
  • Tribal Sub-Plan began in the Fifth Plan.
  • The Ministry of Tribal Affairs was created in 1999.
  • The 89th Amendment created a separate ST Commission.
  • Dhebar Commission: 1960-61.
  • TRIFED helps tribal people sell produce.
  • Chenchu are a PVTG of Andhra Pradesh.
  • LTR 1/70 protects tribal land in Scheduled Areas of AP.

Practice questions

  1. Which Article of the Constitution deals with the list of Scheduled Tribes?

    1. Article 338
    2. Article 244
    3. Article 341
    4. Article 342
    Answer

    D. Article 342

    Article 342 lets the President notify Scheduled Tribes.

  2. The Sixth Schedule applies to tribal areas of which set of states?

    1. Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar and Gujarat
    2. Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Bihar and Punjab
    3. Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Kerala and Tamil Nadu
    4. Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
    Answer

    D. Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram

    The Sixth Schedule covers autonomous districts in these four north-eastern states.

  3. The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act was passed in

    1. 1974
    2. 1996
    3. 1986
    4. 2006
    Answer

    B. 1996

    PESA is a 1996 law that strengthens Gram Sabhas in Scheduled Areas.

  4. The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act was passed in

    1. 1980
    2. 2006
    3. 1992
    4. 1996
    Answer

    B. 2006

    The Forest Rights Act is of 2006.

  5. Which commission first identified tribal groups later called PVTGs?

    1. Sarkaria Commission
    2. Kalelkar Commission
    3. Mandal Commission
    4. Dhebar Commission
    Answer

    D. Dhebar Commission

    The Dhebar Commission (1960-61) identified Primitive Tribal Groups.

  6. The Tribal Sub-Plan strategy began in the

    1. Third Five Year Plan
    2. First Five Year Plan
    3. Fifth Five Year Plan
    4. Seventh Five Year Plan
    Answer

    C. Fifth Five Year Plan

    TSP was started in 1974-75, in the Fifth Plan.

  7. Which of the following is a PVTG found in the Nallamala forests of Andhra Pradesh?

    1. Lambada
    2. Yerukala
    3. Koya
    4. Chenchu
    Answer

    D. Chenchu

    Chenchu are a forest-dwelling PVTG of the Nallamala region.

  8. Jhum is the name for shifting cultivation in

    1. Thar desert
    2. Kerala backwaters
    3. North-east India
    4. Punjab plains
    Answer

    C. North-east India

    Jhum is the term used in the north-east; podu is used in AP and Odisha.

  9. The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes was made a separate constitutional body under which Article?

    1. Article 342A
    2. Article 338A
    3. Article 338
    4. Article 340
    Answer

    B. Article 338A

    The 89th Amendment (2003) added Article 338A.

  10. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs was created in

    1. 1986
    2. 1952
    3. 1974
    4. 1999
    Answer

    D. 1999

    It was carved out of the Social Justice Ministry in 1999.

  11. Which of these is a tribe of the Nilgiri hills?

    1. Naga
    2. Bhil
    3. Toda
    4. Gond
    Answer

    C. Toda

    Todas live in the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu.

  12. Which tribe is among the largest tribal communities of central India?

    1. Onge
    2. Gond
    3. Sentinelese
    4. Jarawa
    Answer

    B. Gond

    The Gonds are one of the largest tribal groups; the others are island tribes with small numbers.

  13. The Fifth Schedule empowers the Governor to

    1. Nominate tribal members to the Lok Sabha
    2. Notify Scheduled Tribes
    3. Make regulations to stop transfer of tribal land to non-tribals
    4. Dissolve autonomous district councils
    Answer

    C. Make regulations to stop transfer of tribal land to non-tribals

    The Governor can regulate land transfer in Scheduled Areas and is advised by a Tribes Advisory Council.

  14. In Andhra Pradesh, tribal land in Scheduled Areas is protected mainly by

    1. Mandal Act
    2. Zamindari Abolition Act
    3. Panchsheel Agreement
    4. Land Transfer Regulation (LTR 1/70)
    Answer

    D. Land Transfer Regulation (LTR 1/70)

    LTR 1/70 bans transfer of tribal land to non-tribals in Scheduled Areas.

  15. Which agency buys minor forest produce from tribal collectors in Andhra Pradesh?

    1. Dairy Federation
    2. Girijan Cooperative Corporation
    3. Marketfed
    4. Handloom Weavers Society
    Answer

    B. Girijan Cooperative Corporation

    GCC is the tribal cooperative that procures and markets minor forest produce.

  16. Which pair of tribe and region is correctly matched?

    1. Bhil - Andaman Islands
    2. Jarawa - Rajasthan
    3. Naga - North-east
    4. Toda - Punjab
    Answer

    C. Naga - North-east

    Nagas are a north-eastern tribe; the other pairs are wrong.

  17. Tribal Panchsheel is associated with

    1. Sardar Patel
    2. B.R. Ambedkar
    3. Mahatma Gandhi
    4. Jawaharlal Nehru
    Answer

    D. Jawaharlal Nehru

    Nehru's five principles guided tribal development policy after Independence.

  18. In the context of tribal policy, 'integration' means

    1. Tribes are kept apart from all contact
    2. Tribes join national life while keeping their own culture
    3. Tribes lose their culture fully
    4. Tribes are moved to cities
    Answer

    B. Tribes join national life while keeping their own culture

    Integration respects tribal culture; assimilation means losing it.

  19. The Eklavya Model Residential Schools are meant mainly for

    1. Urban slum children
    2. Minority girls
    3. Scheduled Tribe students
    4. Children of defence staff
    Answer

    C. Scheduled Tribe students

    EMRS give quality residential education to tribal children.

  20. Which of the following is an island tribe of the Andaman and Nicobar group?

    1. Munda
    2. Onge
    3. Baiga
    4. Oraon
    Answer

    B. Onge

    Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese, Great Andamanese and Shompen live in the islands.

  21. Which of the following is NOT a feature usually linked to tribal society?

    1. Kinship and clan ties
    2. Community ownership of land
    3. Own traditional councils
    4. Strong caste hierarchy based on ritual purity
    Answer

    D. Strong caste hierarchy based on ritual purity

    Tribes are usually organised by clan and kinship, not by the caste ritual hierarchy.

  22. Which problem arises most directly when dams and mines take tribal land?

    1. Urban crowding in villages
    2. Displacement
    3. Inflation
    4. Deflation
    Answer

    B. Displacement

    Land acquisition for projects displaces tribal families from homes and forests.

  23. PESA gives special powers mainly to the

    1. Governor's council of ministers
    2. Lok Sabha
    3. Gram Sabha
    4. Supreme Court
    Answer

    C. Gram Sabha

    PESA makes the Gram Sabha the key body for resources and local planning in Scheduled Areas.

  24. Which of the following is a PVTG found in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh?

    1. Gujjar
    2. Meena
    3. Ahom
    4. Konda Reddi
    Answer

    D. Konda Reddi

    Konda Reddi are a PVTG of the Godavari hill region.

  25. Konda Savara and Gutob Gadaba are classified as

    1. Other Backward Classes
    2. Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups
    3. Denotified Tribes
    4. Scheduled Castes
    Answer

    B. Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups

    Both are listed among AP's PVTGs.

  26. Which community of Andhra Pradesh was once known as traders of grain and salt and is now a Scheduled Tribe?

    1. Koya
    2. Savara
    3. Chenchu
    4. Lambada (Sugali)
    Answer

    D. Lambada (Sugali)

    Lambadas (Banjara, Sugali) were travelling traders and are known for colourful dress.

  27. Which tribe of Andhra Pradesh is known for wall paintings in its hill villages?

    1. Yerukala
    2. Chenchu
    3. Savara
    4. Lambada
    Answer

    C. Savara

    Savara (Sora) paintings on house walls are well known.

  28. Which Article provides for grants-in-aid from the Union to states for tribal welfare?

    1. Article 275
    2. Article 112
    3. Article 266
    4. Article 280
    Answer

    A. Article 275

    Article 275 provides grants for tribal welfare and Scheduled Area administration.

  29. Which Article asks the State to protect the educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes?

    1. Article 39
    2. Article 48
    3. Article 44
    4. Article 46
    Answer

    D. Article 46

    Article 46 is a Directive Principle on weaker sections.

  30. A tribe takes up some outside customs such as dress and food but keeps its own identity. This process is best called

    1. Urbanisation
    2. Acculturation
    3. Colonisation
    4. Annexation
    Answer

    B. Acculturation

    Acculturation means mutual borrowing of cultural traits when cultures meet.

  31. Which of the following was a main reason for the creation of the Tribal Sub-Plan?

    1. To close tribal schools
    2. To shift tribes to cities
    3. To ensure funds in proportion to the tribal population
    4. To end reservation
    Answer

    C. To ensure funds in proportion to the tribal population

    TSP ensures planned flow of funds for tribal areas.

  32. Verrier Elwin is best known for his role in

    1. Founding the Fifth Schedule
    2. Shaping the integration approach to tribal policy
    3. Writing the Forest Rights Act
    4. Starting TRIFED
    Answer

    B. Shaping the integration approach to tribal policy

    Elwin's ideas influenced the Nehruvian approach to tribes.

  33. Tribal land alienation mainly means

    1. Land given to tribes by the State
    2. Tribal people buying urban land
    3. Tribal land turned into parks by tribes
    4. Passing of tribal land into the hands of non-tribals
    Answer

    D. Passing of tribal land into the hands of non-tribals

    Alienation is loss of tribal land to outsiders through loans or fraud.

  34. Which of the following tribal groups is associated with the north-eastern state of Mizoram?

    1. Munda
    2. Irula
    3. Mizo
    4. Gond
    Answer

    C. Mizo

    Mizos are the main tribe of Mizoram.

  35. Statements about Schedules: 1. The Fifth Schedule covers Scheduled Areas in states other than the four north-eastern states named in the Sixth Schedule. 2. Autonomous District Councils are a feature of the Fifth Schedule. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Autonomous District Councils belong to the Sixth Schedule, so statement 2 is wrong.

  36. Statements about PVTGs: 1. They are mostly urban industrial workers. 2. They have a stagnant or falling population. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    PVTGs are forest and hill communities with a pre-agricultural technology level, so statement 2 is wrong.

  37. Statements about the Forest Rights Act, 2006: 1. It recognises individual forest rights. 2. It recognises community forest resource rights. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    The Act recognises both individual and community rights.

  38. Statements about Tribal Panchsheel: 1. It was an India-China agreement signed in 1954. 2. It said development should not be forced on tribes. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The India-China Panchsheel of 1954 is a different thing; tribal Panchsheel is Nehru's policy principles.

  39. Statements about the Constitution and tribes: 1. Article 342 lists Scheduled Tribes. 2. Article 338A provides for a National Commission for Scheduled Tribes. 3. Article 341 lists Scheduled Tribes. Which are correct?

    1. 1 and 2 only
    2. 2 and 3 only
    3. 1 and 3 only
    4. 1, 2 and 3
    Answer

    A. 1 and 2 only

    Article 341 is for Scheduled Castes.

  40. Statements about the Sixth Schedule: 1. It applies to Odisha and Jharkhand. 2. District councils can make laws on land use and village administration. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The Sixth Schedule covers only Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

  41. Match the tribe with its region. 1. Bhil a. Western India 2. Naga b. North-east 3. Chenchu c. Nallamala forests

    1. 1-a, 2-c, 3-b
    2. 1-b, 2-a, 3-c
    3. 1-c, 2-b, 3-a
    4. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
    Answer

    D. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c

    Bhil are in western India, Nagas in the north-east and Chenchu in the Nallamala hills.

  42. Match the term with its meaning. 1. Podu a. Shifting cultivation in AP and Odisha 2. TRIFED b. Tribal produce marketing body 3. PESA c. Gram Sabha powers in Scheduled Areas

    1. 1-c, 2-b, 3-a
    2. 1-b, 2-a, 3-c
    3. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
    4. 1-a, 2-c, 3-b
    Answer

    C. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c

    All three matches are correct in the first option.

  43. Which of these gives tribal children education in their mother tongue the most direct support?

    1. Teaching only in a foreign language
    2. Closing hamlet schools
    3. Early education in the child's own language
    4. Removing all textbooks
    Answer

    C. Early education in the child's own language

    Many tribal languages lack scripts, so mother-tongue teaching in early years helps children learn.

  44. Which scheme or body was created mainly to give tribal groups fair prices for forest produce?

    1. TRIFED
    2. FCI
    3. NABARD
    4. SEBI
    Answer

    A. TRIFED

    TRIFED markets tribal produce and supports tribal artisans.

  45. Sentinelese, Jarawa and Onge are tribes of

    1. Nilgiri hills
    2. Chhota Nagpur plateau
    3. Lakshadweep
    4. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
    Answer

    D. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

    These are island tribes of the Andaman group.

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