Caste System and Casteism

What to remember

• Caste is a hereditary, endogamous social group with a fixed rank. Varna is the four-fold ideal scheme and jati is the actual local group.
• Sanskritisation (M. N. Srinivas) is the process by which a lower group adopts the customs of a higher group to move up in rank. A dominant caste holds land, numbers and power locally.
• The Constitution abolishes untouchability (Article 17) and allows special provisions and reservation. The SC/ST Atrocities Act and the Protection of Civil Rights Act are the main laws.

Origin theories

No single theory explains caste.

Modern scholars see caste as the result of many causes over a long time, including occupation, religion, region and politics.

Features of caste

G. S. Ghurye listed these:

• 1. Segmental division of society: each caste is a closed group with its own rules.
• 2. Hierarchy: castes are ranked, with Brahmins at the top.
• 3. Restrictions on food and social contact: who may share food, water or touch whom.
• 4. Civil and religious disabilities and privileges for different castes.
• 5. Lack of choice of occupation: occupation is hereditary.
• 6. Restrictions on marriage: endogamy within the jati, with exogamy outside one's own gotra.

Concepts of purity and pollution lie at the base of the system.

Varna and jati

Jati groups cluster under varnas, but the ranking of jatis varies from place to place.

Sanskritisation, dominant caste and related ideas

Sanskritisation: The term was used by M. N. Srinivas in his study of the Coorgs of South India. A lower caste imitates the rituals, diet (such as vegetarianism), dress and practices of "twice-born" groups to claim a higher status. It leads to positional change, not structural change, and it is one cause of social mobility. A reference group can also be non-Brahmin, such as a dominant caste. Related ideas are Westernisation (adopting Western lifestyle and ideas) and secularisation.

Dominant caste: Srinivas, from his study of Rampura village, called a caste dominant when it has (a) large numerical strength, (b) economic strength through land, (c) political power, (d) high ritual rank (not always) and (e) access to modern education and jobs. In coastal Andhra, groups such as Kamma and Reddy are often cited as locally dominant landholding castes, and Kapu and Velama also have such influence in some areas. Dominance varies from village to village.

Caste and politics

Caste and politics shape each other. Rajni Kothari argued that politics in India is not "caste-ridden" but that parties use caste to organise votes, and in doing so change caste itself ("politicisation of caste"). Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph wrote about the "modernity of tradition". Features include caste associations that demand benefits, candidate selection by caste, vote banks, and alliances across castes. Politics also gives voice and representation to groups once left out. Critics warn that casteism, meaning loyalty to one's caste above the nation or fairness, hurts national unity and merit and causes conflict.

Reservation and constitutional provisions

The Mandal Commission (headed by B. P. Mandal) recommended 27 per cent reservation for Other Backward Classes. In the Indra Sawhney case, the Supreme Court upheld OBC reservation, set the general ceiling at 50 per cent and required exclusion of the "creamy layer". A constitutional amendment later provided reservation for economically weaker sections among those not covered by other reservations. States such as Andhra Pradesh have their own lists and rules, and these have been revised from time to time, so check the latest official order.

Laws against caste discrimination

• Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (earlier called the Untouchability (Offences) Act) punishes practising untouchability.
• Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 punishes atrocities against SC and ST members, provides special courts, relief and rehabilitation for victims, and was strengthened by later amendments to widen the list of offences.
• Manual scavenging is banned by a separate law.

Sections of the Act make non-bailable offences of acts like forcing eating of filth, social boycott or stripping a person.

Caste reform movements (brief)

Caste in modern India: change and continuity

Caste has changed in many ways. Urban life, modern jobs, schools and public transport have weakened food and touch restrictions in cities. Occupations are no longer fully tied to caste. Land reforms, reservation and education have created new middle classes among former low-ranked groups. Yet caste remains strong in marriage choices, in village life and in politics. New forms include caste associations, caste-based organisations and, sadly, caste violence when groups compete for land, jobs or status. Some scholars note that caste is also becoming a political and economic identity, not just a ritual rank.

Untouchability and the Scheduled Castes

Untouchability meant that some groups were treated as ritually impure and made to live outside villages, denied temple entry, public wells and schools. The Constitution ended this by Article 17. Scheduled Castes (the constitutional term) are listed by the President under Article 341, and Scheduled Tribes under Article 342. Welfare measures include scholarships, hostels, special funds and the National Commission for Scheduled Castes. Social exclusion in practice, such as separate dining or housing, still occurs in some places, which is why the laws and public awareness drives matter.

Inter-caste marriage and the way forward

Caste ends slowly through inter-caste marriage, education, shared public spaces, equal access to jobs and fair treatment by the state. The Special Marriage Act helps couples marry across caste and religion. Government schemes give support to inter-caste couples in some states. Social reformers stressed that annihilation of caste, as Ambedkar argued, needs change of mind as well as law.

Exam traps

• Varna vs jati: four versus thousands.
• Sanskritisation vs Westernisation: imitation of upper castes versus imitation of Western ways.
• Srinivas coined Sanskritisation and dominant caste. Not Ghurye.
• Article 17 vs 15: 17 abolishes untouchability; 15 bans discrimination.
• Article 16(4) vs 16(4A): posts versus promotion.
• Mandal vs Indra Sawhney: the commission versus the court case.
• PCR Act vs Atrocities Act: the first deals with untouchability; the second with atrocities and has special courts.
• Racial theory belongs to Risley; occupational theory to Nesfield.

One-liners

• 1. The Purusha Sukta describes the origin of the four varnas.
• 2. Ghurye listed six features of caste.
• 3. Srinivas coined Sanskritisation.
• 4. Rampura village study led to the dominant caste idea.
• 5. Article 17 abolishes untouchability.
• 6. Mandal Commission recommended 27 per cent OBC reservation.
• 7. Indra Sawhney set the 50 per cent ceiling.
• 8. Creamy layer is excluded from OBC benefits.
• 9. The Atrocities Act has special courts.
• 10. Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj.
• 11. Narayana Guru preached one caste, one religion, one God.
• 12. Ambedkar led the Mahad satyagraha.

Practice questions

1. Which text describes the four varnas as coming from the body of a cosmic being?

   1. Arthashastra
   2. Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda
   3. Manusmriti only as a law code
   4. Bhagavad Gita chapter on yoga
   Answer

   B. Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda

   The Purusha Sukta gives the traditional origin of the varnas.

2. The racial theory of caste is associated with

   1. G. S. Ghurye
   2. J. Nesfield
   3. M. N. Srinivas
   4. Herbert Risley
   Answer

   D. Herbert Risley

   Risley used physical features such as nose index.

3. The occupational theory of caste is associated with

   1. Dumont
   2. M. N. Srinivas
   3. H. Risley
   4. J. Nesfield
   Answer

   D. J. Nesfield

   Nesfield saw caste as arising from occupations.

4. Who listed six features of caste including segmental division and hierarchy?

   1. M. N. Srinivas
   2. A. R. Desai
   3. Louis Dumont
   4. G. S. Ghurye
   Answer

   D. G. S. Ghurye

   Ghurye's list is the standard exam reference.

5. Which term refers to the four-fold classification of society?

   1. Jati
   2. Varna
   3. Panchayat
   4. Gotra
   Answer

   B. Varna

   Varna means the four broad classes.

6. The local birth-based endogamous group is called

   1. Varna
   2. Gotra
   3. Sampradaya
   4. Jati
   Answer

   D. Jati

   Jati is the actual working unit of caste.

7. Who coined the term Sanskritisation?

   1. G. S. Ghurye
   2. M. N. Srinivas
   3. B. R. Ambedkar
   4. Rajni Kothari
   Answer

   B. M. N. Srinivas

   Srinivas used it in his study of the Coorgs.

8. Sanskritisation means

   1. Conversion to another religion
   2. Adopting Western lifestyle
   3. A lower group adopting customs of a higher group
   4. Learning Sanskrit grammar
   Answer

   C. A lower group adopting customs of a higher group

   It is imitation of upper-caste practices for status.

9. Adoption of Western dress, ideas and education is called

   1. Secularisation
   2. Westernisation
   3. Sanskritisation
   4. Tribalisation
   Answer

   B. Westernisation

   Westernisation is a different process.

10. The idea of the dominant caste came from the study of which village?

    1. Shamirpet
    2. Kishangarhi
    3. Rampura
    4. Senapur
    Answer

    C. Rampura

    Srinivas studied Rampura.

11. Which is NOT a feature used to define a dominant caste?

    1. Numerical strength
    2. Economic strength
    3. Complete ritual purity only
    4. Political power
    Answer

    C. Complete ritual purity only

    A dominant caste has numbers, land and power, and ritual rank is not always high.

12. Which Article abolishes untouchability?

    1. Article 15
    2. Article 14
    3. Article 16
    4. Article 17
    Answer

    D. Article 17

    Article 17 bans untouchability in any form.

13. Which Article allows reservation in public jobs for backward classes?

    1. Article 15(1)
    2. Article 17
    3. Article 19
    4. Article 16(4)
    Answer

    D. Article 16(4)

    Article 16(4) permits reservation in appointments.

14. Reservation in promotions for SCs and STs is provided by

    1. Article 16(4A)
    2. Article 340
    3. Article 46
    4. Article 15(5)
    Answer

    A. Article 16(4A)

    Article 16(4A) covers promotion.

15. Reservation in educational institutions is covered by

    1. Article 16(4)
    2. Article 15(5)
    3. Article 330
    4. Article 17
    Answer

    B. Article 15(5)

    Article 15(5) allows it, including private unaided ones.

16. Reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha are provided by

    1. Article 335
    2. Article 340
    3. Article 330
    4. Article 338B
    Answer

    C. Article 330

    Article 330 reserves seats in the House of the People.

17. Which Article provides for appointing a commission to study backward classes?

    1. Article 342
    2. Article 340
    3. Article 338
    4. Article 341
    Answer

    B. Article 340

    Article 340 empowers the President to appoint it.

18. The list of Scheduled Castes is notified under

    1. Article 342
    2. Article 340
    3. Article 338
    4. Article 341
    Answer

    D. Article 341

    The President specifies SCs under Article 341.

19. The Mandal Commission recommended how much reservation for OBCs?

    1. 27 per cent
    2. 15 per cent
    3. 50 per cent
    4. 7.5 per cent
    Answer

    A. 27 per cent

    Mandal recommended 27 per cent.

20. Which case set the 50 per cent ceiling on reservations and required exclusion of the creamy layer?

    1. Minerva Mills case
    2. Indra Sawhney case
    3. Kesavananda Bharati case
    4. Golaknath case
    Answer

    B. Indra Sawhney case

    Indra Sawhney upheld OBC reservation with limits.

21. The law that punishes practice of untouchability is the

    1. Protection of Civil Rights Act
    2. Atrocities Act only
    3. Dowry Prohibition Act
    4. Hindu Marriage Act
    Answer

    A. Protection of Civil Rights Act

    It was earlier called the Untouchability (Offences) Act.

22. Special courts for offences against SC and ST members are provided by the

    1. Protection of Civil Rights Act
    2. Indian Evidence Act
    3. SC and ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act
    4. Right to Education Act
    Answer

    C. SC and ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act

    The Atrocities Act provides special courts.

23. Jyotiba Phule founded the

    1. Brahmo Samaj
    2. Prarthana Samaj
    3. Arya Samaj
    4. Satyashodhak Samaj
    Answer

    D. Satyashodhak Samaj

    Phule's Satyashodhak Samaj fought Brahmin dominance.

24. Who led the Mahad water satyagraha?

    1. B. R. Ambedkar
    2. Periyar
    3. Jyotiba Phule
    4. Narayana Guru
    Answer

    A. B. R. Ambedkar

    Ambedkar led it to claim use of a public tank.

25. The slogan 'One caste, one religion, one God for man' is associated with

    1. Phule
    2. Narayana Guru
    3. Swami Dayanand
    4. Periyar
    Answer

    B. Narayana Guru

    Narayana Guru of Kerala gave it.

26. The Self-Respect Movement was started by

    1. Phule
    2. Gandhi
    3. Periyar E. V. Ramasamy
    4. Ambedkar
    Answer

    C. Periyar E. V. Ramasamy

    Periyar led it in the south.

27. Gandhi called the untouchables

    1. Panchamas
    2. Avarnas
    3. Dalits
    4. Harijans
    Answer

    D. Harijans

    He used the name Harijan, meaning people of God.

28. Which Telugu reformer promoted widow remarriage and social reform?

    1. Jyotiba Phule
    2. Kandukuri Veeresalingam
    3. Narayana Guru
    4. Periyar
    Answer

    B. Kandukuri Veeresalingam

    Veeresalingam was an Andhra social reformer.

29. Excluding the better-off among backward classes from reservation benefits is the idea of

    1. Sanskritisation
    2. Panchayati Raj
    3. Dominant caste
    4. Creamy layer
    Answer

    D. Creamy layer

    The creamy layer is kept out of OBC benefits.

30. Rajni Kothari's view of caste and politics is that

    1. Politics uses caste and thereby changes caste
    2. Politics ended caste
    3. Caste has no role in politics
    4. Caste ended politics
    Answer

    A. Politics uses caste and thereby changes caste

    He described the politicisation of caste.

31. Which statement about caste in cities is correct?

    1. Caste is fully gone
    2. Marriage is fully open
    3. Food and touch restrictions have weakened
    4. Occupation is fully caste-bound
    Answer

    C. Food and touch restrictions have weakened

    Cities weaken restrictions but caste persists in marriage.

32. The term 'Ati-shudra' in the old order referred to

    1. Warriors
    2. Groups outside the four varnas
    3. Brahmin priests
    4. Merchants
    Answer

    B. Groups outside the four varnas

    These groups were treated as untouchable.

33. Statements about Sanskritisation: 1. It was described by M. N. Srinivas. 2. It involves imitation of the practices of higher groups.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

34. Statements about Article 17: 1. It abolishes untouchability. 2. It provides reservation in jobs.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Jobs reservation is in Article 16(4).

35. Statements about the Mandal Commission: 1. It recommended 27 per cent OBC reservation. 2. It dealt with Scheduled Tribes only.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    It dealt with OBCs.

36. Statements about Indra Sawhney case: 1. It set a general ceiling of 50 per cent. 2. It banned all reservations.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    It upheld OBC reservation.

37. Statements about caste: 1. Jati is a local group. 2. Varna has thousands of units.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Varna has four classes; jatis are thousands.

38. Statements about the Atrocities Act: 1. It punishes atrocities against SC and ST members. 2. It does not provide special courts.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    It provides for special courts.

39. Statements about the dominant caste: 1. It has large numbers and land. 2. Its ritual rank is always the highest.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Ritual rank need not be highest.

40. Statements about reformers: 1. Phule started the Satyashodhak Samaj. 2. Narayana Guru worked in Kerala.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

41. Statements about Article 340: 1. It provides for a commission on backward classes. 2. It lists Scheduled Castes.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    SC lists come under Article 341.

42. Statements about Ghurye's features of caste: 1. Segmental division is one feature. 2. Free choice of occupation is one feature.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Caste restricts choice of occupation.

43. Statements about the Risley theory: 1. It stresses racial differences. 2. It is the occupational theory.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Occupational theory is Nesfield's.

44. Statements about Ambedkar: 1. He led the Mahad satyagraha. 2. He wrote the Self-Respect Movement manifesto.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Self-Respect Movement was Periyar's.