Religion, secularism and communalism

What to remember

• India is a secular state with "principled distance" from all religions. The word "secular" was added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment (1976). Articles 25 to 28 protect freedom of religion.
• Communalism is a political ideology, not religion itself. It treats people of one faith as a bloc with interests opposed to other faiths. Its causes are historical, political, economic and social.
• Personal laws differ by religion, and Article 44 asks for a Uniform Civil Code. Courts and Parliament have changed personal laws step by step, as in the Shah Bano case and the triple talaq ruling.

Religions of India

India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism (Parsis) and Judaism came from outside and became part of Indian life. Hinduism is followed by the majority of people. Muslims form the largest minority, followed by Christians and Sikhs.

Religious blending in India includes the Bhakti movement (Kabir, Nanak, Basaveshwara, Ramanuja, Annamacharya in Andhra) and the Sufi movement. Their message of equality and devotion built bridges between communities. Akbar's Sulh-i-kul ("peace with all") was a state policy of tolerance.

Religion and social change

Religion gives people identity, moral guidance and community support. It also shapes festivals, food, dress and family life. Sociologists note that religion can unite a society, but it can also divide it when it is used for politics.

Social reform movements of the nineteenth century worked inside religion to remove social evils. The Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj, the Aligarh movement and the Singh Sabha movement all tried to reform their communities. In Andhra, Kandukuri Veeresalingam worked for widow remarriage and against social evils through the Brahmo ideas. These movements show that reform and faith can go together.

Secularisation is the process in which religion has less control over public life, law and education. In India this happens along with the continued strength of faith. This is why Indian secularism is often described as "equal respect for all religions" and not "no religion".

Secularism in the Constitution

Secularism means the State has no official religion and treats all faiths with fairness. The Indian model is different from the Western model. In the West, the State and the church are strictly separate. In India, the State keeps a "principled distance": it can step in to reform religion when needed, for example to remove untouchability or to improve women's rights.

In S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994), the Supreme Court held that secularism is part of the basic structure of the Constitution.

Communalism

Communalism is an ideology in which a religious community is seen as having its own political and economic interests apart from, and against, other communities. It is different from religiosity (a personal faith). A person can be very religious and still not communal.

Causes

• Colonial "divide and rule" policy, such as separate electorates in 1909 and the Communal Award in 1932.
• The Partition of 1947 and its violence left deep memories.
• Politicisation of religion: leaders use religious feelings to win votes.
• Economic competition and backwardness: jobs and resources are blamed on other groups.
• Rumours, hate speech and fake news, especially on social media.
• Weak policing and delay in justice after riots.
• Poor education and lack of contact between communities.

Effects

• Loss of life and property in riots, and fear and ghettoisation of communities.
• Damage to national unity and the economy.
• Mistrust between neighbours.

Remedies

• Quick, fair action under law against rioters and hate speech.
• Teaching of constitutional values and a common history in schools.
• Joint festivals, peace committees and mohalla committees.
• Responsible media and action against fake news.
• Economic development and jobs for all communities.
• Neutral and trained police forces.
• Political parties not misusing religion.

The Representation of the People Act bars seeking votes on grounds of religion. The Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991 keeps the religious character of places of worship as it was on 15 August 1947 (the Ayodhya site was excluded).

Religious minorities

The Constitution does not define "minority". The National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992 allowed the Union government to notify minorities. The notified groups are Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Zoroastrians (Parsis). Jains were added in 2014.

Key points:

• Article 29: any section of citizens with a distinct language, script or culture can conserve it.
• Article 30: minorities, based on religion or language, can set up and run educational institutions of their choice.
• The Ministry of Minority Affairs was created in 2006.
• The Sachar Committee (2005-06) studied the social, economic and educational status of Muslims.
• The Ranganath Misra Commission (2004-07) was the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities.
• The Prime Minister's 15-Point Programme (2006) is for the welfare of minorities.
• The Waqf Boards manage Waqf property; AP has its own State Waqf Board.

Interfaith harmony

India's tradition of living together is called Sarva Dharma Sambhava (respect for all religions) and the composite culture is sometimes called Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb. Examples:

• Shared saints and shrines, such as the dargahs visited by people of all faiths.
• Kabir and Guru Nanak taught that God is one.
• Joint festivals such as Diwali, Eid, Christmas, Ugadi and Sankranti are enjoyed across communities in many places.
• Constitutional values of fraternity in the Preamble.

Personal laws

Personal laws govern marriage, divorce, adoption and succession. They differ by religion.

Key events:

• Shah Bano case (1985): The Supreme Court gave maintenance to a divorced Muslim woman under the general criminal law (Section 125 of the CrPC, now Section 144 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023). Parliament then passed the 1986 Act, which led to heavy debate.
• Shayara Bano case (2017): The Supreme Court held instant triple talaq unconstitutional. Parliament later made it an offence by the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act, 2019.
• Goa follows a common family law, which is often cited in the UCC debate. Uttarakhand passed its own Uniform Civil Code in 2024, in force from 27 January 2025, the first State to do so after Independence.

The Uniform Civil Code is a Directive Principle. It is not enforceable in court. Supporters say it brings equality and national unity. Opponents say it can hurt religious freedom and diversity, and many say reforms should come from within communities.

Exam traps

• Secular was added in 1976 by the 42nd Amendment; it was not in the original Preamble.
• Article 25 is freedom of religion; Article 30 is minority educational institutions.
• Article 28 bans religious instruction in wholly State-funded schools, not in all schools.
• Communalism is a political ideology; communal violence is only one of its results.
• Article 44 (UCC) is a Directive Principle, not a Fundamental Right.
• Jains became a notified minority in 2014; Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Parsis were notified earlier.
• Shah Bano (1985) and Shayara Bano (2017) are different cases.
• Sachar Committee studied Muslims; Ranganath Misra Commission studied religious and linguistic minorities.

One-liners

• India has no official State religion.
• The 42nd Amendment added "secular" and "socialist" to the Preamble.
• S.R. Bommai (1994) made secularism part of the basic structure.
• Article 25 gives freedom of conscience and religion.
• Article 30 gives minorities the right to run educational institutions.
• Ministry of Minority Affairs: 2006.
• Sachar Committee: 2005-06.
• Special Marriage Act: 1954.
• Hindu Succession Act: 1956; amended in 2005.
• Instant triple talaq was struck down in 2017.
• The Places of Worship Act is of 1991.
• The Communal Award of 1932 is an example of colonial divide and rule.

Practice questions

1. The word 'secular' was added to the Preamble by the

   1. 42nd Amendment
   2. 44th Amendment
   3. 24th Amendment
   4. 73rd Amendment
   Answer

   A. 42nd Amendment

   The 42nd Amendment of 1976 inserted 'secular' and 'socialist'.

2. Freedom of conscience and the right to profess, practise and propagate religion is given by

   1. Article 32
   2. Article 19
   3. Article 21
   4. Article 25
   Answer

   D. Article 25

   Article 25 is the main religious freedom provision.

3. Which Article directs the State to secure a Uniform Civil Code?

   1. Article 14
   2. Article 25
   3. Article 44
   4. Article 30
   Answer

   C. Article 44

   Article 44 is a Directive Principle on the UCC.

4. Which Article protects the right of minorities to establish and run educational institutions?

   1. Article 30
   2. Article 29
   3. Article 26
   4. Article 28
   Answer

   A. Article 30

   Article 30 gives minorities this right.

5. Which case held secularism to be part of the basic structure of the Constitution?

   1. Golaknath v. State of Punjab
   2. S.R. Bommai v. Union of India
   3. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala
   4. Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India
   Answer

   B. S.R. Bommai v. Union of India

   Bommai (1994) said secularism is a basic feature.

6. Indian secularism is best described as

   1. Ban on all religions
   2. Strict wall between State and religion
   3. Official support for one religion
   4. Principled distance of the State from all religions
   Answer

   D. Principled distance of the State from all religions

   The State may step in to reform religion but does not favour any faith.

7. Which Article bars compulsory religious instruction in schools wholly maintained by the State?

   1. Article 29
   2. Article 28
   3. Article 25
   4. Article 27
   Answer

   B. Article 28

   Article 28 stops religious instruction in wholly State-funded schools.

8. Article 27 says that

   1. No person can be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of a particular religion
   2. Religious schools are banned
   3. Temples must pay income tax
   4. All religions get equal tax relief
   Answer

   A. No person can be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of a particular religion

   Article 27 protects against taxes for any particular religion.

9. Which of the following was NOT among the original minorities notified at the Union level under the 1992 Act?

   1. Sikhs
   2. Muslims
   3. Jains
   4. Christians
   Answer

   C. Jains

   Jains were added to the list in 2014.

10. The Ministry of Minority Affairs was created in

    1. 1976
    2. 1992
    3. 1950
    4. 2006
    Answer

    D. 2006

    The Ministry was set up in 2006.

11. The Sachar Committee studied the condition of

    1. Parsis
    2. Scheduled Tribes
    3. Scheduled Castes
    4. Muslims in India
    Answer

    D. Muslims in India

    The Sachar Committee (2005-06) reported on social and educational status of Muslims.

12. Communalism is best defined as

    1. Study of religions
    2. An ideology that treats a religious community as having interests opposed to others
    3. Deep personal faith in God
    4. Respect for all faiths
    Answer

    B. An ideology that treats a religious community as having interests opposed to others

    Communalism is political, while religiosity is personal belief.

13. Which colonial measure is an example of 'divide and rule' linked to communalism?

    1. Separate electorates
    2. Doctrine of Lapse
    3. Permanent Settlement
    4. Ryotwari System
    Answer

    A. Separate electorates

    Separate electorates (1909) and the Communal Award (1932) divided voters by religion.

14. The Communal Award of 1932 gave separate electorates to the

    1. Zamindars only
    2. Women only
    3. Depressed Classes and other minorities
    4. Industrial workers only
    Answer

    C. Depressed Classes and other minorities

    It extended separate electorates and led to the Poona Pact.

15. Which of the following is a remedy for communalism?

    1. Limiting travel between states
    2. Banning all festivals
    3. Fair and quick action against rioters and hate speech
    4. Closing all schools
    Answer

    C. Fair and quick action against rioters and hate speech

    Strong legal action and trust-building reduce communal violence.

16. The Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991 fixes the religious character of places of worship as on

    1. 26 January 1950
    2. 15 August 1947
    3. 1 January 1991
    4. 2 October 1947
    Answer

    B. 15 August 1947

    The Act keeps the status as it stood on 15 August 1947.

17. The Special Marriage Act was passed in

    1. 1955
    2. 1937
    3. 1961
    4. 1954
    Answer

    D. 1954

    It allows civil marriage irrespective of religion.

18. Instant triple talaq was held unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the

    1. Shayara Bano case
    2. Vishaka case
    3. Bommai case
    4. Shah Bano case
    Answer

    A. Shayara Bano case

    The Shayara Bano judgment came in 2017.

19. The Shah Bano case (1985) was about

    1. Freedom of press
    2. Land reforms
    3. Reservation for OBCs
    4. Maintenance for a divorced Muslim woman
    Answer

    D. Maintenance for a divorced Muslim woman

    The Court held she was entitled to maintenance under general criminal law.

20. The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act was passed in

    1. 1955
    2. 1947
    3. 1937
    4. 1986
    Answer

    C. 1937

    It applies Muslim personal law in matters such as marriage and succession.

21. Hindu Succession Act was passed in 1956; its 2005 amendment

    1. Gave daughters equal coparcenary rights
    2. Raised marriage age
    3. Banned dowry
    4. Allowed polygamy
    Answer

    A. Gave daughters equal coparcenary rights

    The 2005 amendment gave daughters equal rights in joint family property.

22. Which state is often cited as having a common family law in the Uniform Civil Code debate?

    1. Punjab
    2. Goa
    3. Odisha
    4. Kerala
    Answer

    B. Goa

    Goa follows a common civil code from its Portuguese-era legacy.

23. The Uniform Civil Code is a

    1. Fundamental Right
    2. Fundamental Duty
    3. Preamble ideal only
    4. Directive Principle of State Policy
    Answer

    D. Directive Principle of State Policy

    It is in Part IV and not enforceable by courts.

24. Which saint is associated with the message that God is one and for both Hindus and Muslims?

    1. Kabir
    2. Chaitanya
    3. Shankaracharya
    4. Basaveshwara
    Answer

    A. Kabir

    Kabir's teaching rejected the religious divide.

25. Akbar's policy of 'Sulh-i-kul' means

    1. Land for all
    2. Tax for all
    3. Peace with all
    4. War with all
    Answer

    C. Peace with all

    It was a policy of tolerance towards all faiths.

26. Which Article gives any section of citizens the right to conserve its distinct language, script or culture?

    1. Article 19
    2. Article 29
    3. Article 30
    4. Article 21A
    Answer

    B. Article 29

    Article 29 protects interests of minorities.

27. Which of these is a Hindu reform movement of the nineteenth century?

    1. Home Rule League
    2. Khilafat movement
    3. Swadeshi movement
    4. Arya Samaj
    Answer

    D. Arya Samaj

    The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati.

28. Which social reformer from Andhra worked for widow remarriage in the nineteenth century?

    1. Kandukuri Veeresalingam
    2. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
    3. Narayana Guru
    4. Jyotirao Phule
    Answer

    A. Kandukuri Veeresalingam

    Veeresalingam is known as a great social reformer of Andhra.

29. Which of the following is a cause of communal tension?

    1. Mixed neighbourhood festivals
    2. Joint peace committees
    3. Rumours and hate speech on social media
    4. Independent policing
    Answer

    C. Rumours and hate speech on social media

    False news and hate speech can inflame tensions.

30. Statements: 1. Communalism is the same as religiosity. 2. Religiosity means personal faith. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Communalism is a political ideology and is not the same as personal faith.

31. Statements about Articles 25-28: 1. Article 25 protects freedom of conscience. 2. Article 28 bans religious instruction in all private schools. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Article 28 applies to institutions wholly maintained by the State.

32. Statements about the Preamble: 1. 'Secular' was in the original 1950 Preamble. 2. 'Secular' was added in 1976. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The word was inserted by the 42nd Amendment in 1976.

33. Statements about minorities: 1. The Constitution gives a full definition of 'minority'. 2. Article 30 covers both religious and linguistic minorities. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The Constitution does not define 'minority'.

34. Statements about the Uniform Civil Code: 1. It is enforceable by courts as a Fundamental Right. 2. It is mentioned in Article 44. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Article 44 is a Directive Principle and not enforceable.

35. Statements about personal laws: 1. They govern marriage and succession. 2. They are the same for all religions in India. 3. The Special Marriage Act provides for civil marriage. Which are correct?

    1. 1 and 2 only
    2. 2 and 3 only
    3. 1 and 3 only
    4. 1, 2 and 3
    Answer

    C. 1 and 3 only

    Personal laws differ across religions.

36. Statements about the Shah Bano case and its result: 1. The Supreme Court allowed maintenance for a divorced Muslim woman. 2. Parliament later passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct: the judgment came in 1985 and the Act in 1986.

37. Match the item with its feature. 1. Article 26 a. Manage religious affairs 2. Article 27 b. No tax for promoting a religion 3. Article 29 c. Conserve culture of minorities

    1. 1-c, 2-b, 3-a
    2. 1-b, 2-a, 3-c
    3. 1-a, 2-c, 3-b
    4. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
    Answer

    D. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c

    These are the correct descriptions of Articles 26, 27 and 29.

38. Match the commission with its focus. 1. Sachar Committee a. Muslims' status 2. Ranganath Misra Commission b. Religious and linguistic minorities 3. Minorities Commission Act 1992 c. National Commission for Minorities

    1. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
    2. 1-c, 2-b, 3-a
    3. 1-b, 2-a, 3-c
    4. 1-a, 2-c, 3-b
    Answer

    A. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c

    Each is matched with its correct task.

39. Match the law with its community. 1. Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act a. Parsis 2. Indian Christian Marriage Act b. Christians 3. Hindu Marriage Act c. Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists

    1. 1-c, 2-b, 3-a
    2. 1-a, 2-c, 3-b
    3. 1-b, 2-a, 3-c
    4. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
    Answer

    D. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c

    These laws apply to the named communities.

40. A town holds a peace committee with leaders of all faiths before festivals. This is an example of

    1. Colonial policy
    2. A cause of communalism
    3. Religious conversion
    4. A step to prevent communal conflict
    Answer

    D. A step to prevent communal conflict

    Peace and mohalla committees build trust and stop rumours.

41. A law that bans seeking votes in the name of religion mainly protects

    1. Foreign policy
    2. Economic planning
    3. The secular character of elections
    4. Tax collection
    Answer

    C. The secular character of elections

    The Representation of the People Act treats this as a corrupt practice.

42. A State funds welfare for pilgrims of all faiths equally and does not favour any one. This best shows

    1. Equal respect for all religions
    2. Theocracy
    3. State religion
    4. Atheism by law
    Answer

    A. Equal respect for all religions

    Equal treatment of all faiths is the Indian secular approach.

43. Which is a result of communal riots that harms society most directly?

    1. Fear and mistrust between neighbouring communities
    2. Faster river flow
    3. More factory jobs
    4. Higher literacy
    Answer

    A. Fear and mistrust between neighbouring communities

    Riots break trust and push communities into separate areas.

44. Which of the following is the best example of India's composite culture?

    1. Banning inter-faith friendships
    2. Shared festivals and shrines visited by many faiths
    3. Separate schools for each faith by law
    4. Religion-based voter lists
    Answer

    B. Shared festivals and shrines visited by many faiths

    Shared practices show the Ganga-Jamuni tradition.

45. Which teacher is regarded as the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism?

    1. Guru Nanak
    2. Kabir
    3. Mahavira
    4. Gautama Buddha
    Answer

    C. Mahavira

    Mahavira is the 24th Tirthankara.