Women in Indian society

What to remember

• Women's status has changed across history. It was relatively high in the early Vedic period, fell in later periods, and rose again through reform movements, the Constitution and modern laws.
• Social evils and crimes against women are met by specific laws. Key laws include the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005), the PCPNDT Act (1994) and the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act (2013).
• Empowerment works through law, local-body reservation and schemes. One-third seats in Panchayats and Municipalities (73rd and 74th Amendments), the Women's Reservation Act (2023) and Mission Shakti are major pillars.

Status of women through history

Women in the freedom movement include Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Kasturba Gandhi, Aruna Asaf Ali and Durgabai Deshmukh (from Andhra). Savitribai Phule opened one of the first schools for girls in India.

Reform movements

• Sati: Raja Ram Mohan Roy campaigned against it. Lord William Bentinck banned it in 1829.
• Widow remarriage: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar led the campaign; the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act was passed in 1856. Kandukuri Veeresalingam of Andhra arranged widow remarriages and started schools for girls.
• Child marriage: The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 (Sarda Act) set age limits. The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 now applies, with the minimum age of 18 for girls and 21 for boys.
• Education: Savitribai Phule and Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra, and Vidyasagar in Bengal, promoted girls' schools.
• Women's organisations: Women's Indian Association (1917) and the All India Women's Conference (1927).

Social evils

Female infanticide and foeticide cause a falling child sex ratio in some regions. This is why the government runs Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (launched in 2015 from Panipat).

Crimes against women and legal protections

Common crimes: domestic violence, rape, kidnapping, acid attacks, trafficking, stalking, sexual harassment and cruelty by husband or relatives.

Key laws and institutions

• Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: Giving or taking dowry is an offence.
• Cruelty by husband or relatives: Criminal law has a special provision to punish cruelty related to dowry demands (Section 498A of the IPC, now Sections 85-86 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, in force from 1 July 2024).
• Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: A civil law that gives protection orders, residence and monetary relief; Protection Officers help women.
• Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013: Passed after the December 2012 Delhi gang rape (Nirbhaya); based on the Justice Verma Committee; widened the definition of sexual offences and added acid attack, stalking and voyeurism as offences. These offences now sit in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, which replaced the IPC from 1 July 2024.
• Vishaka guidelines, 1997: Supreme Court rules on workplace harassment, made into law by the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, which requires an Internal Committee in workplaces.
• Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956: Against trafficking.
• Maternity Benefit Act, 1961: Paid maternity leave; amended in 2017 to give 26 weeks for the first two children. Now subsumed in the Code on Social Security, 2020 (in force from 21 November 2025).
• Equal Remuneration Act, 1976: Equal pay for equal work. Repealed and subsumed in the Code on Wages, 2019, in force from 21 November 2025.
• National Commission for Women (NCW): Statutory body set up in 1992 to protect women's rights; states have their own women's commissions.
• Helpline 181: Women's helpline; One Stop Centres (Sakhi): Help for women facing violence.
• AP initiatives: Disha app and Disha police stations for women's safety, and Mahila Police in villages (check latest official release for current details).

Constitutional provisions

Reservation in local bodies and legislatures

• The 73rd Amendment (Panchayats) and 74th Amendment (Municipalities) came in 1992-93. They reserve not less than one-third of seats and of chairperson posts for women. Many states, including Andhra Pradesh, have raised this to 50 per cent through their own laws.
• The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023, called the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, reserves one-third of seats for women in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies. It takes effect after a census and delimitation (check the latest official release).

Empowerment schemes at recall level

In AP, the DWCRA (Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas) groups became a model for thrift groups. Later the Society for Elimination of Rural Poverty (SERP, also called Velugu) organised women's self-help groups. Stree Nidhi helps SHG women get quick credit.

Women, work and education

Women's literacy and school enrolment have improved, and girls now do well in board exams and higher education. Yet women's share in paid work is lower than men's. Much of women's work is unpaid, such as household work, care of children and the old, and farm help in the family. Many women work in the informal sector with low pay and no social security.

Ways to support women's work:

• Skill training and credit through self-help groups.
• Safe transport, hostels and creches near workplaces.
• Equal pay and maternity benefits.
• Property and land titles in the woman's name.

Gender equality means equal rights, equal chances and equal respect for all genders. It needs changes in family attitudes as well as in law. The sex ratio, the child sex ratio and women's literacy are indicators used to judge progress (check the latest official release for any figures).

Persisting challenges

Unequal property rights in practice, low women's work participation, wage gap, early marriage in some regions, lack of safety in public places, unpaid care work, and low political voice. The Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005 gave daughters equal coparcenary rights, but awareness and enforcement remain uneven.

Exam traps

• Sati was banned in 1829 by Bentinck; the 1987 Act came after the Roop Kanwar case.
• Widow Remarriage Act (1856) is different from the Sarda Act (1929) on child marriage.
• PCPNDT Act (1994) bans sex determination; the Dowry Act is 1961.
• The Vishaka guidelines are of 1997; the Act is of 2013.
• Reservation for women in Panchayats is Article 243D; for Municipalities, 243T.
• NCW is statutory (1992), not constitutional.
• Mission Shakti has two parts: Sambal and Samarthya.
• 73rd Amendment reserves at least one-third; many states provide more.

One-liners

• Bentinck banned sati in 1829.
• Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act: 1856.
• Sarda Act on child marriage: 1929.
• Dowry Prohibition Act: 1961.
• PCPNDT Act: 1994.
• Domestic Violence Act: 2005.
• Prohibition of Child Marriage Act: 2006.
• Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act: 2013.
• NCW was set up in 1992.
• Maternity leave is 26 weeks for the first two children.
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao began from Panipat.
• Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam: 106th Amendment, 2023.

Practice questions

1. Sati was banned in 1829 by

   1. Lord William Bentinck
   2. Lord Dalhousie
   3. Lord Canning
   4. Lord Curzon
   Answer

   A. Lord William Bentinck

   Bentinck's Regulation of 1829 banned sati in British India.

2. Which reformer campaigned strongly against sati?

   1. Dayananda Saraswati
   2. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
   3. B.R. Ambedkar
   4. Syed Ahmad Khan
   Answer

   B. Raja Ram Mohan Roy

   Raja Ram Mohan Roy led the campaign against sati.

3. The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act was passed in

   1. 1829
   2. 1872
   3. 1856
   4. 1929
   Answer

   C. 1856

   The campaign was led by Vidyasagar.

4. The Sarda Act of 1929 was about

   1. Dowry
   2. Widow remarriage
   3. Sati
   4. Child marriage
   Answer

   D. Child marriage

   The Child Marriage Restraint Act is known as the Sarda Act.

5. Which social reformer of Andhra arranged widow remarriages in the nineteenth century?

   1. Alluri Sitarama Raju
   2. Kandukuri Veeresalingam
   3. Tanguturi Prakasam
   4. Gurajada Apparao
   Answer

   B. Kandukuri Veeresalingam

   Veeresalingam is a well-known reformer of Andhra.

6. The Dowry Prohibition Act was passed in

   1. 1961
   2. 1950
   3. 1971
   4. 1986
   Answer

   A. 1961

   Giving or taking dowry is an offence under this Act.

7. The PCPNDT Act of 1994 prohibits

   1. Dowry demands
   2. Sale of girls
   3. Child labour
   4. Sex determination before birth
   Answer

   D. Sex determination before birth

   It aims to stop sex-selective abortion.

8. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act was passed in

   1. 1994
   2. 2013
   3. 2005
   4. 1961
   Answer

   C. 2005

   It provides civil remedies such as protection orders.

9. The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act was passed in

   1. 1997
   2. 2012
   3. 2013
   4. 2005
   Answer

   C. 2013

   It was based on the Vishaka guidelines of 1997.

10. Vishaka guidelines were issued by the

    1. Law Commission
    2. President
    3. Parliament
    4. Supreme Court
    Answer

    D. Supreme Court

    The Supreme Court laid down these guidelines in 1997.

11. The National Commission for Women was set up in

    1. 1950
    2. 1992
    3. 2005
    4. 1975
    Answer

    B. 1992

    NCW is a statutory body created in 1992.

12. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 was passed after

    1. The December 2012 Delhi gang rape case
    2. The Bhopal gas leak
    3. The Shah Bano case
    4. The Mandal Commission report
    Answer

    A. The December 2012 Delhi gang rape case

    The Verma Committee recommendations led to the 2013 Act.

13. Which Article allows special provisions for women and children?

    1. Article 19(1)(a)
    2. Article 15(3)
    3. Article 25
    4. Article 15(4)
    Answer

    B. Article 15(3)

    Article 15(3) allows special laws for women and children.

14. Article 243D provides for

    1. Reservation of seats for women in Panchayats
    2. Reservation in jobs
    3. Reservation in Lok Sabha
    4. Reservation in Municipalities
    Answer

    A. Reservation of seats for women in Panchayats

    Article 243D covers Panchayats; Article 243T covers Municipalities.

15. The 73rd Amendment reserves at least what share of Panchayat seats for women?

    1. One-fourth
    2. One-half
    3. Two-thirds
    4. One-third
    Answer

    D. One-third

    At least one-third of seats are reserved; many states give more.

16. The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam is the

    1. 86th Amendment
    2. 42nd Amendment
    3. 106th Constitutional Amendment
    4. 73rd Amendment
    Answer

    C. 106th Constitutional Amendment

    It reserves one-third seats for women in Lok Sabha and Assemblies.

17. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao was launched in 2015 from

    1. Lucknow
    2. Panipat
    3. Pune
    4. Hyderabad
    Answer

    B. Panipat

    The scheme was launched at Panipat in Haryana.

18. Mission Shakti has two main parts, called

    1. Sakhi and Disha
    2. Poshan and Anganwadi
    3. Sambal and Samarthya
    4. Ujjawala and Swadhar
    Answer

    C. Sambal and Samarthya

    Sambal is for safety and Samarthya is for empowerment.

19. The Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana is a

    1. Savings scheme for the girl child
    2. Scholarship for college
    3. Free ration scheme
    4. Pension for widows
    Answer

    A. Savings scheme for the girl child

    It encourages saving for a girl child's education and marriage.

20. Maternity leave of 26 weeks, under the 2017 amendment, applies for

    1. Only the first child
    2. The first four children
    3. The first two children
    4. Any number of children
    Answer

    C. The first two children

    The 2017 amendment gave 26 weeks for the first two children.

21. Which pioneer opened one of the first schools for girls in India?

    1. Annie Besant
    2. Sarojini Naidu
    3. Indira Gandhi
    4. Savitribai Phule
    Answer

    D. Savitribai Phule

    Savitribai Phule worked with Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra.

22. The Women's Indian Association was founded in

    1. 1917
    2. 1885
    3. 1905
    4. 1927
    Answer

    A. 1917

    Annie Besant and others set it up in 1917.

23. The Devadasi system in Andhra Pradesh was prohibited by an Act of

    1. 1956
    2. 1988
    3. 1961
    4. 1947
    Answer

    B. 1988

    The AP Devadasis (Prohibition of Dedication) Act was passed in 1988.

24. Which Article is a Fundamental Duty to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women?

    1. Article 51A(a)
    2. Article 39(a)
    3. Article 21
    4. Article 51A(e)
    Answer

    D. Article 51A(e)

    Article 51A(e) is the relevant duty.

25. Equal pay for equal work for men and women is a Directive Principle under

    1. Article 19
    2. Article 21A
    3. Article 39(d)
    4. Article 14
    Answer

    C. Article 39(d)

    Article 39(d) is the DPSP on equal pay.

26. Which women's thrift group programme became a model in Andhra Pradesh?

    1. DWCRA groups
    2. Antyodaya
    3. Rythu Bandhu
    4. Mid-Day Meal
    Answer

    A. DWCRA groups

    DWCRA groups were early women thrift groups in AP.

27. Which act made daughters equal coparceners in Hindu joint family property?

    1. Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
    2. Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005
    3. Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
    4. Domestic Violence Act, 2005
    Answer

    B. Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005

    The 2005 amendment gave equal property rights to daughters.

28. Female foeticide mainly leads to

    1. Higher literacy
    2. Better health
    3. Lower dowry
    4. A fall in the child sex ratio
    Answer

    D. A fall in the child sex ratio

    Selective abortion of girls reduces the number of girls per thousand boys.

29. Which Act punishes acid attacks and stalking as offences?

    1. Maternity Benefit Act, 1961
    2. Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
    3. Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
    4. Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013
    Answer

    D. Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013

    The 2013 Act added these offences.

30. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in

    1. 1956
    2. 1976
    3. 1929
    4. 1961
    Answer

    A. 1956

    It deals with trafficking and exploitation.

31. One Stop Centres (Sakhi) mainly offer

    1. Crop insurance
    2. Employment loans
    3. Support to women facing violence
    4. Free ration
    Answer

    C. Support to women facing violence

    These centres give legal, medical and counselling help at one place.

32. Statements: 1. Sati was banned in 1829. 2. The Sati (Prevention) Act was passed in 1987. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct; the 1987 Act followed the Roop Kanwar case.

33. Statements about local bodies: 1. Article 243T provides for reservation for women in Municipalities. 2. Women's reservation in Panchayats cannot be raised above one-third. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    States can raise it; many have gone to 50 per cent.

34. Statements about NCW: 1. It is a statutory body. 2. It was created in 1992. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    NCW was created under a Parliamentary Act in 1992.

35. Statements about the Domestic Violence Act, 2005: 1. It is mainly a civil law providing protection orders. 2. It protects only women who are married. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    It also covers women in domestic relationships of other kinds.

36. Statements about the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: 1. Minimum age is 18 for girls. 2. Minimum age is 21 for boys. 3. It permits marriage of girls at 15. Which are correct?

    1. 1 and 2 only
    2. 2 and 3 only
    3. 1 and 3 only
    4. 1, 2 and 3
    Answer

    A. 1 and 2 only

    Statement 3 is wrong; the minimum age for girls is 18.

37. Statements about Mission Shakti: 1. It is an umbrella scheme. 2. Sambal is a component. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Mission Shakti has Sambal and Samarthya.

38. Match the Act with its subject. 1. PCPNDT Act a. Sex determination ban 2. Dowry Prohibition Act b. Dowry 3. Maternity Benefit Act c. Paid leave for mothers

    1. 1-b, 2-a, 3-c
    2. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
    3. 1-c, 2-b, 3-a
    4. 1-a, 2-c, 3-b
    Answer

    B. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c

    These are the correct subjects of the three Acts.

39. Match the reformer with his work. 1. Vidyasagar a. Widow remarriage 2. Raja Ram Mohan Roy b. Against sati 3. Savitribai Phule c. Girls' education

    1. 1-a, 2-c, 3-b
    2. 1-c, 2-b, 3-a
    3. 1-b, 2-a, 3-c
    4. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
    Answer

    D. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c

    Each reformer is matched to the right cause.

40. Match the Article with its content. 1. Article 15(3) a. Special provisions for women 2. Article 243D b. Women's seats in Panchayats 3. Article 42 c. Maternity relief

    1. 1-b, 2-a, 3-c
    2. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
    3. 1-c, 2-b, 3-a
    4. 1-a, 2-c, 3-b
    Answer

    B. 1-a, 2-b, 3-c

    These are the correct descriptions.

41. A company with ten or more employees sets up an Internal Committee to handle complaints of sexual harassment. This follows

    1. The Factories Act of 1948
    2. The 2013 workplace harassment law
    3. The Dowry Prohibition Act
    4. The PCPNDT Act
    Answer

    B. The 2013 workplace harassment law

    The 2013 Act requires an Internal Committee.

42. A woman faces cruelty from her husband and in-laws over dowry demands. Which step is most appropriate?

    1. File a case on tax
    2. Wait for the family to settle
    3. Change her name
    4. Approach the police and the Protection Officer under the Domestic Violence Act
    Answer

    D. Approach the police and the Protection Officer under the Domestic Violence Act

    The law gives criminal and civil remedies for such cruelty.

43. A village women's group saves money every month and lends to members. This is an example of

    1. A trade union
    2. A self-help group
    3. A cooperative bank
    4. A political party
    Answer

    B. A self-help group

    SHGs are thrift and credit groups, often of women.

44. Women's participation in work is low mainly because

    1. Women are banned from jobs
    2. No schools exist for girls
    3. Women are exempt from tax
    4. Much of their work is unpaid and in the informal sector
    Answer

    D. Much of their work is unpaid and in the informal sector

    Care work and farm help are often unpaid and not counted.

45. Which early Vedic woman is known as a scholar?

    1. Gargi
    2. Aruna Asaf Ali
    3. Mirabai
    4. Sarojini Naidu
    Answer

    A. Gargi

    Gargi and Maitreyi are known women scholars of the Vedic age.