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Child Development and Educational Psychology · Chapter 1

Growth, Development and Maturation

What to remember

  • Growth is physical and measurable; development is wider, qualitative and lifelong; maturation is unfolding of inborn readiness.
  • Development is orderly: head to foot (cephalocaudal), centre to outside (proximodistal), general to specific.
  • Heredity gives the potential; environment decides how much of it is shown. Both work together always.

Meaning of growth, development and maturation

Growth means an increase in size, height, weight or other body measures. It can be measured in numbers. It stops at a certain age (physical maturity).

Development means progressive change in all areas of a person: body, thinking, feelings, social life and language. It includes growth but is much wider. It is qualitative (change in quality and skill) and continues from conception to death.

Maturation means the natural unfolding of abilities that are controlled by inherited biological timing. Sitting, crawling, walking and the onset of puberty are examples. Training cannot speed these up much before the child is ready. Arnold Gesell stressed maturation through his co-twin control study (stair climbing).

Learning means change in behaviour caused by experience or practice. Maturation gives readiness; learning uses that readiness. A child cannot learn to write well before the small muscles of the hand mature.

PointGrowthDevelopmentMaturation
NatureQuantitativeQualitative and quantitativeInborn readiness
Measurable in numbersYesNot alwaysObserved as readiness
PeriodStops at maturityLifelongReaches a ripe stage
ExampleHeight risesChild speaks, reasons, sharesAbility to walk at the right age

Principles of development

  • 1. Continuous: development never stops, though speed changes.
  • 2. Sequential and orderly: stages come in a fixed order. Babies lift the head, then sit, crawl, stand and walk.
  • 3. Cephalocaudal: control of the head comes before the trunk and legs.
  • 4. Proximodistal: control of the trunk and shoulder comes before the fingers.
  • 5. General to specific: a baby moves the whole arm before picking a small object with the fingers.
  • 6. Different rates: each child grows at a personal speed (individual differences). Boys and girls also differ in timing.
  • 7. Interrelated: one area affects the others. Poor health can slow learning and social life.
  • 8. Predictable: the pattern is common, so we can predict the next step.
  • 9. Cumulative: early experiences form the base for later development. Early years are most important.
  • 10. Integration: parts develop and then work together as a whole.
  • 11. Critical (sensitive) periods: there are times when a child is especially ready to learn a skill, for example language in early childhood.
  • 12. Both heredity and environment influence it. Neither works alone.

Factors affecting development

  • Heredity: genes passed on at conception decide body type, basic ability, and some temperament. A child gets 23 chromosomes from each parent, 46 in all. Sex is decided by the X and Y chromosomes: XX gives a girl and XY gives a boy. The father's chromosome decides the sex of the child.
  • Environment: everything outside the person that acts on the child: home, school, peers, neighbourhood, media and culture. It starts in the womb (prenatal environment).
  • Nutrition and health: poor diet slows body and brain growth. Illness and disability affect school attendance and mood.
  • Endocrine glands: pituitary (master gland) controls growth. Thyroid affects metabolism and mental growth. Sex glands bring puberty.
  • Family and socio-economic status: parent education, income, parenting style and sibling position.
  • Culture, gender and school: these shape roles, values and expectations.
  • Intelligence and emotional climate: a loving home supports healthy growth.

Heredity and environment in the classroom

Teachers cannot change heredity, but they can improve the environment. A rich classroom, play, praise, books, good food and safe spaces help each child reach full potential. Nature-nurture is not an either-or question. A common idea is that heredity sets the limits, and environment decides where in that range the child will be.

Methods of studying development

MethodMeaning
LongitudinalSame children studied again and again over many years
Cross-sectionalChildren of different ages studied at one time
Case studyDetailed study of one child or a small group
ObservationWatching behaviour in natural settings
ExperimentalVariables are controlled to find cause and effect
Survey, interview, questionnaireCollect views and facts from many people

Longitudinal gives continuity but takes long. Cross-sectional is quick and cheaper.

Developmental milestones (general order)

  • About 2-3 months: social smile and cooing.
  • About 4-6 months: rolls over, reaches for objects, babbles.
  • About 6-8 months: sits without support.
  • About 9-12 months: crawls, stands with support, first words near the end of the first year.
  • About 12-15 months: walks alone.
  • About 2 years: two-word sentences.
  • Before school age: runs, draws simple shapes, speaks in full sentences.

Ages are approximate. A small delay is not a disorder. A teacher should refer children with large delays for help.

Hazards of development

Hazards are things that can harm normal development.

  • Prenatal: poor nutrition of the mother, infections, alcohol, smoking, drugs, radiation, serious stress, and very young or old mother.
  • Natal (birth): premature birth, low birth weight, lack of oxygen at birth.
  • Postnatal physical hazards: malnutrition, illness, accidents, disability.
  • Psychological hazards: neglect, abuse, harsh punishment, over-protection, rejection, lack of play, broken home.
  • Social and educational hazards: poverty, child labour, unsafe schools, bullying, labels such as "weak" or "slow".

A teacher helps by noticing early signs, keeping a kind classroom and linking families to health services.

Branches of psychology and its meaning

The word psychology comes from the Greek words psyche (soul) and logos (study). Over time its meaning moved from study of the soul, to the mind, to consciousness, and now to the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychology laboratory at Leipzig in 1879, so he is called the father of experimental psychology. J. B. Watson made behaviour the focus (behaviourism).

BranchConcern
Educational psychologyLearning and teaching in schools
Child psychologyBehaviour of children
Developmental psychologyChanges across the whole life span
Abnormal psychologyDisorders of behaviour
Social psychologyBehaviour in groups and society
Clinical psychologyDiagnosis and treatment of mental problems
Industrial psychologyWork and workers
Counselling psychologyGuidance for adjustment
Experimental psychologyLaboratory study of behaviour

Educational psychology helps a teacher to know the learner, the learning process and the learning situation. It supports lesson planning, motivation, evaluation and classroom control.

Heredity: how it works

Life begins when a sperm cell joins an ovum (fertilisation) to form a zygote. The zygote divides again and again. Genes are carried on chromosomes and are the units of heredity. Traits that come from the parents are called inherited traits. Traits gained from experience, such as a skill, are acquired traits and are not passed on through genes. Twins from one fertilised egg are identical (monozygotic) and share the same genes. Twins from two eggs are fraternal (dizygotic). Identical twins reared apart are used to study the effect of environment on the same heredity.

Stages before birth

PeriodMeaning
GerminalFirst two weeks; the zygote divides and attaches to the womb
EmbryonicFrom about week 3 to 8; organs begin to form; most sensitive to harm
FetalFrom about week 9 to birth; growth and finer development

The embryonic period is the time when drugs, infection or radiation can do the greatest harm.

Classroom meaning of these ideas

A teacher who knows these principles will not expect all children to do the same task at the same age. Readiness matters: a child should not be forced to write long answers before the muscles and attention are ready. A teacher should also watch for children who are slow in all areas and give them help in time. Praise small steps. Never compare one child with another in public. Use activity, play and real objects with young children.

Exam traps

  • Growth is quantitative; development is qualitative. Do not reverse them.
  • Maturation is inborn timing; learning is from experience. Both together give development.
  • Cephalocaudal means head to foot; proximodistal means near to far from the body centre.
  • Longitudinal means same group over time; cross-sectional means different ages at one time.
  • Wundt founded the first laboratory; Watson founded behaviourism.
  • Growth stops at maturity; development goes on through life.
  • The pituitary is the master gland; thyroid is linked with metabolism.
  • The sex of the child depends on the father's chromosome, not the mother's.

One-liners

  • 1. Psychology means study of the soul in its Greek origin.
  • 2. Modern psychology is the science of behaviour and mental processes.
  • 3. Growth is physical increase.
  • 4. Development is lifelong and multi-dimensional.
  • 5. Maturation is controlled by heredity.
  • 6. Gesell is linked with maturation and norms of development.
  • 7. Humans have 46 chromosomes.
  • 8. XY gives a male child.
  • 9. Cephalocaudal means head-to-toe direction.
  • 10. Proximodistal means centre-to-outside direction.
  • 11. The early years are the foundation of later development.
  • 12. Educational psychology applies psychology to teaching and learning.

Practice questions

  1. Which term means an increase in size, height or weight that can be measured?

    1. Development
    2. Learning
    3. Growth
    4. Maturation
    Answer

    C. Growth

    Growth is quantitative physical increase.

  2. Development differs from growth because development is

    1. only physical
    2. limited to childhood
    3. only measurable in centimetres
    4. qualitative and lifelong
    Answer

    D. qualitative and lifelong

    Development covers all areas and continues through life.

  3. The natural unfolding of abilities controlled by inherited biological timing is called

    1. maturation
    2. accommodation
    3. imitation
    4. conditioning
    Answer

    A. maturation

    Maturation is inborn readiness unfolding with age.

  4. Control of the head before the legs is an example of which direction of development?

    1. General to specific
    2. Cephalocaudal
    3. Proximodistal
    4. Distal to proximal
    Answer

    B. Cephalocaudal

    Cephalocaudal means head to foot.

  5. Control of the shoulder and arm before the fingers illustrates the

    1. principle of readiness
    2. cephalocaudal principle
    3. principle of imitation
    4. proximodistal principle
    Answer

    D. proximodistal principle

    Proximodistal means from the centre outward.

  6. A baby moves the whole arm before picking up a small object with the fingers. This shows development from

    1. specific to general
    2. general to specific
    3. outer to inner
    4. complex to simple
    Answer

    B. general to specific

    Large, general movements come before fine specific ones.

  7. The first psychology laboratory was set up in 1879 at Leipzig by

    1. Wilhelm Wundt
    2. J. B. Watson
    3. William James
    4. Sigmund Freud
    Answer

    A. Wilhelm Wundt

    Wundt is called the father of experimental psychology.

  8. The word psychology comes from the Greek words psyche and logos, meaning

    1. mind and law
    2. behaviour and science
    3. soul and study
    4. body and thought
    Answer

    C. soul and study

    Psyche means soul and logos means study.

  9. The master gland that controls growth is the

    1. adrenal
    2. thyroid
    3. pituitary
    4. pancreas
    Answer

    C. pituitary

    The pituitary regulates other glands and growth.

  10. The sex of a child is decided by the chromosome contributed by the

    1. mother
    2. father
    3. both equally
    4. grandparents
    Answer

    B. father

    The father gives X or Y; XY gives a boy.

  11. How many chromosomes does a normal human body cell have?

    1. 46
    2. 48
    3. 23
    4. 44
    Answer

    A. 46

    23 come from each parent, giving 46.

  12. The method in which the same group of children is studied over many years is

    1. survey
    2. experimental
    3. cross-sectional
    4. longitudinal
    Answer

    D. longitudinal

    Longitudinal study follows the same persons over time.

  13. Children of different ages studied at one time is called the

    1. introspection
    2. case study
    3. longitudinal method
    4. cross-sectional method
    Answer

    D. cross-sectional method

    Cross-sectional compares different age groups together.

  14. Which branch of psychology deals with learning and teaching in schools?

    1. Clinical psychology
    2. Abnormal psychology
    3. Educational psychology
    4. Industrial psychology
    Answer

    C. Educational psychology

    Educational psychology applies psychology to education.

  15. Gesell is best known for his emphasis on

    1. maturation
    2. multiple intelligences
    3. operant conditioning
    4. moral reasoning
    Answer

    A. maturation

    His co-twin study stressed maturational readiness.

  16. Which period of prenatal life is most sensitive to harm from drugs and infection?

    1. Postnatal
    2. Embryonic
    3. Germinal
    4. Late fetal
    Answer

    B. Embryonic

    Organs form in the embryonic period.

  17. Identical twins come from

    1. one fertilised egg
    2. two fertilised eggs
    3. two sperm and one egg only
    4. unfertilised eggs
    Answer

    A. one fertilised egg

    Monozygotic twins share the same genes.

  18. A teacher refuses to make slow writers of class one write long essays because their hand muscles are not ready. This reflects the idea of

    1. modelling
    2. extinction
    3. maturational readiness
    4. equilibration
    Answer

    C. maturational readiness

    Skills need biological readiness before training works.

  19. A child who can run well but cannot hold a pencil properly shows development of

    1. fine motor before gross motor skills
    2. language before movement
    3. gross motor before fine motor skills
    4. only emotional growth
    Answer

    C. gross motor before fine motor skills

    Large muscle control precedes small muscle control.

  20. A teacher says, 'Heredity decides the range; environment decides where in the range the child reaches.' This view shows

    1. only heredity
    2. interaction of heredity and environment
    3. only environment
    4. only maturation
    Answer

    B. interaction of heredity and environment

    Both factors work together.

  21. Which situation shows a psychological hazard to development?

    1. Lack of vitamins
    2. A broken arm
    3. Low birth weight
    4. Constant rejection and harsh punishment
    Answer

    D. Constant rejection and harsh punishment

    Rejection and harshness harm emotional growth.

  22. A child's fear of mathematics after repeated ridicule shows how development is

    1. fixed by heredity
    2. independent of environment
    3. purely physical
    4. interrelated across areas
    Answer

    D. interrelated across areas

    Emotional experience affects learning.

  23. A teacher compares one child's pace with another in public. Which principle is ignored?

    1. Individual differences in rate of development
    2. Critical periods
    3. Cephalocaudal development
    4. Continuity of development
    Answer

    A. Individual differences in rate of development

    Each child grows at a personal speed.

  24. Which is an example of an acquired, not inherited, trait?

    1. Skin colour
    2. Skill in cycling
    3. Eye colour
    4. Blood group
    Answer

    B. Skill in cycling

    Skills are learned through experience.

  25. Learning a language most easily in early childhood best illustrates

    1. extinction
    2. fixation
    3. scaffolding
    4. a sensitive (critical) period
    Answer

    D. a sensitive (critical) period

    Some abilities are acquired best at certain ages.

  26. A study that tells us how drugs taken by a mother harm the baby belongs to the area of

    1. postnatal hazards
    2. adolescent problems
    3. prenatal hazards
    4. social hazards
    Answer

    C. prenatal hazards

    Harm before birth is a prenatal hazard.

  27. Using many real objects and activities for young children is justified mainly because early development

    1. is cumulative and builds on concrete experience
    2. is fixed at birth
    3. needs no environment
    4. depends only on genes
    Answer

    A. is cumulative and builds on concrete experience

    Early experiences form the base for later growth.

  28. Which of the following is the best example of development rather than growth?

    1. Height rises by a few centimetres
    2. A child learns to share and reason
    3. Weight increases
    4. Hair becomes longer
    Answer

    B. A child learns to share and reason

    Development includes new skills and qualities.

  29. Identical twins reared in different homes are studied to understand the effect of

    1. heredity on the same environment
    2. nutrition only
    3. sex chromosomes
    4. environment on the same heredity
    Answer

    D. environment on the same heredity

    Same genes, different environments show environmental influence.

  30. Which gland is mainly linked with metabolism and mental growth?

    1. Thyroid
    2. Thymus
    3. Gonads
    4. Pituitary
    Answer

    A. Thyroid

    Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and brain growth.

  31. Statements: 1. Growth stops at physical maturity. 2. Development continues through life. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

  32. Statements: 1. Maturation depends mainly on learning. 2. Maturation is controlled by inherited timing. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Maturation is biological; learning comes from experience.

  33. Statements: 1. Development is cephalocaudal. 2. Development is proximodistal. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both directions describe development.

  34. Statements: 1. All children develop at the same rate. 2. Early development forms the base for later development. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Rates differ; early development is cumulative.

  35. Statements: 1. Longitudinal study is quick and cheap. 2. Cross-sectional study follows the same group for years. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    Both are reversed: longitudinal is long; cross-sectional uses different ages at once.

  36. Statements: 1. Wundt started a laboratory for experimental psychology. 2. Psychology today is the science of behaviour and mental processes. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

  37. Statements: 1. Environment begins to act only after birth. 2. Prenatal environment affects development. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The womb is the first environment.

  38. Statements: 1. Skills gained by practice are passed on to children through genes. 2. Inherited traits come through genes. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Acquired traits are not inherited.

  39. Statements: 1. Poor nutrition can slow brain growth. 2. Endocrine glands influence growth. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both factors affect development.

  40. Match the term with its meaning. 1. Maturation 2. Learning 3. Growth

    1. 1 - inborn unfolding; 2 - change by experience; 3 - physical increase
    2. 1 - physical increase; 2 - change by experience; 3 - inborn unfolding
    3. 1 - physical increase; 2 - inborn unfolding; 3 - change by experience
    4. 1 - change by experience; 2 - physical increase; 3 - inborn unfolding
    Answer

    A. 1 - inborn unfolding; 2 - change by experience; 3 - physical increase

    Maturation is inborn, learning is from experience, growth is physical increase.

  41. Match the method with its description. 1. Case study 2. Experimental method 3. Longitudinal method

    1. 1 - controlled variables; 2 - one child in depth; 3 - same group over time
    2. 1 - one child in depth; 2 - same group over time; 3 - controlled variables
    3. 1 - same group over time; 2 - one child in depth; 3 - controlled variables
    4. 1 - one child in depth; 2 - controlled variables; 3 - same group over time
    Answer

    D. 1 - one child in depth; 2 - controlled variables; 3 - same group over time

    Case study is detailed; experiment controls variables; longitudinal follows over time.

  42. Match the founder with the contribution. 1. Wundt 2. Watson 3. Gesell

    1. 1 - first laboratory; 2 - behaviourism; 3 - maturation
    2. 1 - maturation; 2 - behaviourism; 3 - first laboratory
    3. 1 - first laboratory; 2 - maturation; 3 - behaviourism
    4. 1 - behaviourism; 2 - first laboratory; 3 - maturation
    Answer

    A. 1 - first laboratory; 2 - behaviourism; 3 - maturation

    Wundt began the laboratory, Watson behaviourism, Gesell maturation.

  43. A researcher compares 6-year-olds, 9-year-olds and 12-year-olds on one day to describe changes in memory. The method is

    1. cross-sectional
    2. clinical
    3. longitudinal
    4. case study
    Answer

    A. cross-sectional

    Different ages are studied at the same time.

  44. Which statement best separates maturation from learning?

    1. Learning needs no experience
    2. Maturation needs repeated practice
    3. Learning is controlled by genes
    4. Maturation unfolds by inborn timing even without special training
    Answer

    D. Maturation unfolds by inborn timing even without special training

    Learning needs experience; maturation is biological.

  45. A child with delayed walking but normal in all other areas is best handled by the teacher through

    1. punishing for laziness
    2. watching, supporting and advising a health check if the delay is large
    3. labelling the child as slow
    4. ignoring all delays
    Answer

    B. watching, supporting and advising a health check if the delay is large

    Ages are approximate, but large delays need professional help.

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