Child Development and Educational Psychology · Chapter 12

Child-Study Methods

What to remember

Child study means collecting reliable information about a child's growth, behaviour and learning so that the teacher can understand and help the child.
Each method has a purpose: observation for behaviour, interview for views, case study for depth, anecdotal record for incidents, rating scale for judging degree, action research for solving classroom problems.
Longitudinal studies follow the same children over time; cross-sectional studies compare different age groups at one time.

Why teachers study children

A teacher cannot guide a child without knowing the child. Child study helps to:

understand normal development and spot delays early;
find the reasons behind problem behaviour or poor achievement;
plan teaching to suit different needs;
give guidance and counselling;
keep proper records for parents and schools.

Good child study is objective (free from the observer's bias), systematic, continuous and confidential. Records must not be shared with persons who have no need to see them.

Observation method

Observation means watching behaviour carefully and recording it. It is the oldest and most basic method, and it is very suitable for young children who cannot express themselves well.

Types:

*Naturalistic observation:* watching behaviour in its natural setting (classroom, playground) without changing the situation.
*Controlled (laboratory) observation:* watching behaviour in a planned, arranged situation.
*Participant observation:* the observer takes part in the group's activities.
*Non-participant observation:* the observer only watches from outside.
*Structured observation:* uses a ready checklist or schedule of items to observe.
*Unstructured observation:* the observer notes whatever seems important.

Sampling in observation:

*Time sampling:* behaviour is recorded during short, fixed time intervals (for example, 5 minutes every hour). Good for frequent behaviours.
*Event sampling:* a specific event (for example, a quarrel) is recorded whenever it happens. Good for rare behaviours.

Merits: gives first-hand, natural data; suits infants and young children; no need for the child's language skills.

Limits: observer bias; the child may behave differently if he knows he is watched (observer effect); time-consuming; the observer cannot see private thoughts.

Interview method

The interview is a planned face-to-face (or telephone) conversation to collect information from the child, parents, teachers or peers.

*Structured interview:* fixed questions in a fixed order.
*Unstructured interview:* open conversation with flexible questions.
*Semi-structured:* a guide of questions with freedom to probe.

Good practice: build rapport first, use simple language, ask open questions, listen, do not lead the child to an answer, and keep the matter confidential.

Merits: deep and flexible; can explain feelings and reasons.

Limits: takes time; depends on the child's honesty and language ability; the interviewer's attitude can influence answers. Jean Piaget used the "clinical method", a flexible questioning style, to study children's thinking.

Case study method

A case study is an in-depth, detailed study of one child (or one small group or school) over a period, using many sources: observation, interviews, tests, school records, family history, medical history and work samples.

Steps: identify the case and the problem; collect data from many sources; analyse; find probable causes; suggest remedies; follow up.

Merits: gives a complete picture; useful for exceptional children (gifted, slow learners, delinquent, children with special needs) and for guidance.

Limits: time-consuming; depends on the skill of the investigator; results cannot be generalised to all children; records can be affected by memory errors.

Anecdotal record

An anecdote is a short, factual note about one significant incident in a child's behaviour. The teacher writes it soon after the event.

Rules of a good anecdotal record:

Write the date, time, place and child's name.
Describe what happened and what was said, as it happened (facts only).
Keep interpretation or comments separate from the facts.
Record both positive and negative incidents.
One incident per record; keep it short.

Merits: simple, gives real examples of behaviour, helps in counselling and in the cumulative record.

Limits: subjective if comments mix with facts; a single incident may not represent the child; the teacher may not note many incidents.

Rating scale

A rating scale asks an observer to judge the degree or quality of a trait or behaviour on a scale.

*Numerical scale:* numbers are given (1 to 5).
*Graphic scale:* a line marked with descriptive points from low to high.
*Descriptive scale:* each point has a short description of behaviour.

A rating scale differs from a checklist. A checklist records only whether a trait is present or absent (yes/no). A rating scale records how much.

Common rating errors:

Error	Meaning
Halo effect	A general good impression influences the rating of every trait
Leniency (generosity) error	The rater gives high marks to everyone
Severity error	The rater gives low marks to everyone
Central tendency error	The rater chooses the middle points always
Logical error	The rater thinks two traits are linked and rates them alike

Related tools: *Sociometry* (J.L. Moreno) finds the friendship pattern in a group by asking children whom they choose; it is drawn as a sociogram and shows stars, isolates and cliques. The *cumulative record card* gathers a child's information year after year.

Action research

Action research is a systematic study done by teachers themselves in their own classroom to solve a practical problem and improve practice. The term is linked with Kurt Lewin, and Stephen Corey applied it to education.

Cycle: identify the problem, plan an action, act, observe the results, reflect, and revise the plan. The cycle repeats. The result is used at once in the same school.

Examples: a teacher finds that many children cannot read with understanding, tries story-based reading sessions for a month, notes the change, and improves the plan.

Features: small scale, local, practical, done by the teacher, flexible, aimed at improvement, not at universal laws.

Longitudinal and cross-sectional methods

These are designs for studying development over age.

Point	Longitudinal	Cross-sectional
Who is studied	The same children, followed over years	Different children of different ages at the same time
Time needed	Long	Short
Cost	High	Low
Main strength	Shows real individual change and growth	Quick, cheap, large samples
Main weakness	Dropout (attrition), cost, repeated testing effect	Cohort differences (the age groups grew up in different conditions); cannot show individual change

A *sequential* design combines the two: several age groups are followed for a shorter time.

Choosing a method

Need	Suitable method
See natural behaviour of a young child	Observation
Know feelings and reasons	Interview
Understand one child's problem fully	Case study
Note a significant incident	Anecdotal record
Judge the degree of a trait	Rating scale
Solve a class problem	Action research
Study growth of the same child over years	Longitudinal
Compare age groups quickly	Cross-sectional

Ethics and good practice in child study

Take permission from the school and parents before long studies or case studies.
Keep names and records confidential; use them only for the child's benefit.
Do not label or compare a child unfairly; record strengths as well as weaknesses.
Use more than one method (triangulation) so that one weak source does not mislead.
Record at once, in simple words, and date every entry.
Share results with parents in a supportive way and plan follow-up steps.
Cumulative records should be updated regularly and passed on to the next teacher.

Exam traps

Time sampling vs event sampling: time sampling uses fixed intervals; event sampling waits for a chosen event.
Checklist vs rating scale: checklist = present/absent; rating scale = degree.
Participant vs non-participant observation: the observer joins the group only in participant observation.
Longitudinal vs cross-sectional: same group over time vs different groups at one time.
Case study vs survey: a case study is deep and narrow; a survey is wide and shallow.
Anecdotal record vs diary: an anecdotal record is a fact-only note on one incident; interpretation is kept apart.
Halo effect vs leniency error: halo = general impression colours all traits; leniency = rating everyone high.
Action research vs basic research: action research solves a local problem; basic research aims for general theory.

One-liners

1. Observation is the most basic method of child study.
2. Controlled observation is done in a planned situation.
3. Time sampling records behaviour at fixed intervals.
4. Event sampling records a specific event when it occurs.
5. A case study is an in-depth study of one case.
6. An anecdotal record is a factual note of one significant incident.
7. A rating scale measures the degree of a trait.
8. The halo effect is a common rating error.
9. Sociometry was developed by J.L. Moreno.
10. Action research is done by the teacher in her own class.
11. Longitudinal study follows the same group over time.
12. Cross-sectional study compares age groups at one time.

Practice questions

Which method is the most basic and suitable for studying infants and young children?
1. Questionnaire
2. Interview
3. Observation
4. Rating scale
Answer
C. Observation
Young children cannot express much in words, so watching behaviour suits them.
Watching behaviour in its natural setting without changing the situation is:
1. Controlled observation
2. Case study
3. Experiment
4. Naturalistic observation
Answer
D. Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation leaves the setting unchanged.
In participant observation, the observer:
1. Watches from outside only
2. Uses a fixed rating scale only
3. Interviews parents only
4. Takes part in the group's activities
Answer
D. Takes part in the group's activities
The observer joins the group.
Recording behaviour for short fixed intervals of time is called:
1. Sociometry
2. Time sampling
3. Case history
4. Event sampling
Answer
B. Time sampling
Time sampling uses fixed intervals, e.g. five minutes every hour.
Which sampling method is best for recording a rare event such as a quarrel?
1. Event sampling
2. Time sampling
3. Random guessing
4. Cross-sectional sampling
Answer
A. Event sampling
Event sampling records the chosen event whenever it happens.
A detailed study of one child using many sources over a period is a:
1. Rating scale
2. Survey
3. Case study
4. Cross-sectional study
Answer
C. Case study
A case study is deep and uses several sources.
Which method is especially useful for studying exceptional children such as gifted or slow learners?
1. Case study
2. Time sampling
3. Checklist only
4. Cross-sectional design
Answer
A. Case study
Case study gives a complete picture of an individual child.
A main limitation of the case study method is that:
1. It gives only shallow data
2. It cannot use records
3. Its results cannot be generalised to all children
4. It needs no time
Answer
C. Its results cannot be generalised to all children
One case may not represent others.
A short factual note about a significant incident in a child's behaviour is called:
1. A sociogram
2. An anecdotal record
3. A rating scale
4. A questionnaire
Answer
B. An anecdotal record
An anecdote records one incident as it happened.
In a good anecdotal record, the teacher should:
1. Avoid writing the date
2. Keep facts separate from interpretation
3. Record many incidents together
4. Mix opinion with facts
Answer
B. Keep facts separate from interpretation
Facts are kept apart from comments to reduce bias.
A tool that asks the observer to judge the degree of a trait is a:
1. Interview schedule
2. Checklist
3. Anecdote
4. Rating scale
Answer
D. Rating scale
A rating scale shows how much of a trait is present.
A checklist differs from a rating scale because a checklist records:
1. The degree of a trait
2. Whether a trait is present or absent
3. The cause of a trait
4. Only the parents' views
Answer
B. Whether a trait is present or absent
A checklist is a yes/no tool.
A rater gives a child high marks on all traits because of a generally good impression. This is the:
1. Halo effect
2. Leniency error
3. Severity error
4. Central tendency error
Answer
A. Halo effect
The halo effect lets one impression colour all ratings.
A rater who gives high marks to every child commits the:
1. Logical error
2. Central tendency error
3. Leniency error
4. Severity error
Answer
C. Leniency error
Rating everyone generously is a leniency error.
A rater who always chooses the middle points on a scale commits the:
1. Leniency error
2. Severity error
3. Central tendency error
4. Halo effect
Answer
C. Central tendency error
Avoiding the extremes is a central tendency error.
Sociometry, which finds friendship patterns in a group, was developed by:
1. Kurt Lewin
2. Arnold Gesell
3. Jean Piaget
4. J.L. Moreno
Answer
D. J.L. Moreno
Moreno introduced sociometry and the sociogram.
A diagram showing the choices and rejections among members of a group is a:
1. Sociogram
2. Pie chart
3. Ogive
4. Histogram
Answer
A. Sociogram
Sociograms show stars, isolates and cliques.
Action research is mainly done by:
1. Teachers in their own classrooms
2. Only university professors
3. Only inspectors
4. Only parents
Answer
A. Teachers in their own classrooms
It is practical research by practitioners to solve local problems.
The term 'action research' is linked with:
1. B.F. Skinner
2. Edward Thorndike
3. Kurt Lewin
4. Sigmund Freud
Answer
C. Kurt Lewin
Lewin used the term; Stephen Corey applied it to education.
Which is the correct order in the action research cycle?
1. Observe, plan, reflect, act
2. Plan, act, observe, reflect
3. Reflect, act, plan, observe
4. Act, reflect, plan, observe
Answer
B. Plan, act, observe, reflect
The cycle runs plan, act, observe, reflect, and then repeats.
The main aim of action research is to:
1. Discover universal laws
2. Test intelligence
3. Compare nations
4. Solve a practical problem and improve practice
Answer
D. Solve a practical problem and improve practice
It aims at local improvement.
A study that follows the same children from age 5 to age 15 is:
1. Cross-sectional
2. Experimental
3. Survey only
4. Longitudinal
Answer
D. Longitudinal
The same group is studied over time.
A study that compares groups of 6, 8 and 10 year-olds at the same time is:
1. Anecdotal
2. Cross-sectional
3. Longitudinal
4. Case study
Answer
B. Cross-sectional
Different age groups are studied at one time.
Which is a main weakness of the longitudinal method?
1. Dropout of participants and high cost
2. It cannot show change
3. It uses different children
4. It is very quick
Answer
A. Dropout of participants and high cost
Attrition and cost are the main problems.
Which is a main weakness of the cross-sectional method?
1. It needs the same children
2. It cannot be used with children
3. Differences between groups may be due to cohort, not age
4. It takes decades
Answer
C. Differences between groups may be due to cohort, not age
Different age groups grew up in different conditions.
A design that follows several age groups for a shorter time combines both methods and is called:
1. Sequential
2. Participant
3. Clinical
4. Descriptive
Answer
A. Sequential
A sequential design mixes longitudinal and cross-sectional ideas.
Jean Piaget studied children's thinking by a flexible questioning style called the:
1. Survey method
2. Sociometric method
3. Clinical method
4. Time-sampling method
Answer
C. Clinical method
Piaget's clinical method used open, flexible questioning.
Statements: 1. A rating scale measures the degree of a trait. 2. A checklist records only presence or absence. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both describe the two tools correctly.
Statements: 1. Observation can be affected by observer bias. 2. In structured observation a ready schedule is used. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are true of observation.
Statements: 1. A case study is useful for guidance. 2. A case study findings can always be generalised. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Case study results are not easily generalised, so statement 2 is wrong.
Statements: 1. Anecdotal records should include only negative incidents. 2. They should be written soon after the event. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Both positive and negative incidents should be recorded; records should be prompt.
Statements: 1. Action research is done by the teacher. 2. Action research aims at immediate improvement of practice. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both describe action research.
Statements: 1. A longitudinal study is quick and cheap. 2. A cross-sectional study studies different age groups at one time. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Longitudinal studies are slow and costly.
Statements: 1. The halo effect is a rating error. 2. Leniency error means giving low marks to everyone. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Leniency means giving high marks; low marks to everyone is severity error.
Statements: 1. An interview should begin with building rapport. 2. The interviewer should lead the child to the answer. Which is/are correct?
1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Leading questions spoil an interview.
Sociometry is mainly used for:
1. Measuring intelligence
2. Studying heredity
3. Judging handwriting
4. Studying friendship patterns in a group
Answer
D. Studying friendship patterns in a group
Sociometry maps who chooses whom in a group.
Which method is BEST to know a child's feelings and reasons for his behaviour?
1. Time sampling
2. Checklist
3. Cross-sectional study
4. Interview
Answer
D. Interview
Conversation can reveal feelings and reasons.
A teacher notes how many times a child leaves his seat in each 10-minute period. This is mostly:
1. Event sampling
2. Case study
3. Sociometry
4. Time sampling
Answer
D. Time sampling
Fixed periods are used, so it is time sampling.
Which problem is the most suitable for an action research project?
1. What is the average height of Indian children
2. Many children in my class cannot read with understanding
3. Which state has the highest literacy
4. How did ancient schools work
Answer
B. Many children in my class cannot read with understanding
Action research solves a specific problem in the teacher's own class.
To keep a child's information year after year, the school uses a:
1. Time table
2. Attendance register only
3. Cumulative record card
4. Sociogram
Answer
C. Cumulative record card
The cumulative record card gathers information across the years.
Which practice makes child study more reliable?
1. Relying on one incident
2. Using only memory
3. Using more than one method
4. Avoiding records
Answer
C. Using more than one method
Using many methods (triangulation) reduces error.
What should be done with the records of a child study?
1. Share them with any visitor
2. Use them to punish the child
3. Display them on the notice board
4. Keep them confidential and use them for the child's benefit
Answer
D. Keep them confidential and use them for the child's benefit
Confidentiality is a basic ethical rule.
A teacher compares one child's progress with the same child's earlier records, rather than with other children. This shows an interest in:
1. Group averages
2. Individual change over time
3. Rankings
4. Cohort differences
Answer
B. Individual change over time
This is the logic of a longitudinal record.
Which of the following does the observation method NOT directly show?
1. Physical activity
2. A child's play behaviour
3. Social interaction in class
4. A child's private thoughts
Answer
D. A child's private thoughts
Observation records behaviour that can be seen, not private thoughts.
A rater thinks that 'intelligent children are always hard-working' and rates both traits alike. This is a:
1. Halo effect only
2. Logical error
3. Central tendency error
4. Severity error
Answer
B. Logical error
A logical error assumes two traits go together.

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