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Child Development and Educational Psychology · Chapter 4

Childhood, Socialisation, Parenting, Play, Self, Adolescence, Groups and Leadership

What to remember

  • Childhood is shaped by family, school, peers and culture. Socialisation turns a child into a member of society.
  • Play is the natural way of learning in childhood. Parenting style and sense of self shape behaviour.
  • Adolescents need identity, belonging and guidance. Groups and leaders influence behaviour; democratic leadership suits a classroom best.

Childhood as a social construct

Childhood is not only biological. Different societies and periods see children differently: as small workers, as learners, or as persons with rights. In India the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (2009) gives children aged 6 to 14 the right to elementary education, and Article 21A of the Constitution supports it. Child labour, early marriage, poverty and gender bias harm childhood. Teachers should respect the child's rights, voice and local context.

Socialisation

Socialisation is the process by which a child learns the language, values, manners and roles of society.

  • Agents: family (primary agent), school, peer group, neighbourhood, religion, mass media and community.
  • Family gives the first lessons. School teaches discipline, rules, cooperation and citizenship. Peers give equal status and independence. Media now gives models and ideas.
  • Process: imitation, identification, reinforcement and instruction.
  • A teacher supports it by group tasks, assembly, clubs, rules made together, and respect for diversity.
  • Sociologists like Cooley and Mead stress that the self grows through social contact.

Parenting

Style (Baumrind)FeaturesCommon effect on child
AuthoritativeWarm and firm; explains rulesSelf-reliant, confident, good social skills
AuthoritarianStrict, little warmth, demands obedienceFearful, less independent, sometimes rebellious
PermissiveWarm, few rulesPoor self-control, demanding
Neglectful (uninvolved)Little warmth and little controlInsecure, lower achievement

The authoritative style is considered the best. Teachers should hold parent meetings and keep parents informed. Over-protection and harsh punishment are both harmful.

Play

Play is spontaneous, enjoyable activity chosen by the child. It supports body, mind, language, emotions and social skills.

Stages of social play (Parten): unoccupied, solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, cooperative.

Types: functional (practice play), constructive, pretend or symbolic (make-believe), games with rules. Piaget linked these types with cognitive stages.

Theories of play:

TheoryIdea
Surplus energy (Spencer, Schiller)Extra energy is released in play
Recreation (Lazarus)Play restores energy
Practice (Groos)Play prepares for adult life
Recapitulation (Stanley Hall)Play repeats the history of the race
CatharsisPlay releases pent-up emotions

School link: activity-based learning, play-way methods (kindergarten, as designed by Froebel) and Montessori materials rely on play. Playtime is a right of the child.

Sense of self

Self-concept is what a person believes about oneself. Self-esteem is how one values oneself. Self-efficacy is belief in one's ability to do a task.

  • Self-image: the picture of oneself.
  • Ideal self: the person one would like to be (Rogers).
  • The self grows through feedback from parents, teachers and peers ("looking-glass self", Cooley).
  • Positive: praise for effort, success tasks, no labels or comparison.
  • Negative: constant criticism, labels like "dull", repeated failure.

Teachers build a healthy self by giving responsibility and honest, kind feedback.

Needs of adolescents

  • Physical needs: nutrition, rest, exercise, and sex education.
  • Need for independence and freedom with guidance.
  • Need for identity (who am I?), Erikson.
  • Need for belonging and peer acceptance.
  • Need for affection, security and recognition.
  • Need for achievement and a future career.
  • Need for correct information and healthy outlets (sports, arts, clubs).

Problems of adolescence

  • Emotional: mood swings, anxiety, anger, inferiority.
  • Behavioural: rebellion, indiscipline, lying, bunking classes.
  • Social: peer pressure, bullying, over-use of mobile phones and social media.
  • Health: poor diet, body image problems, risk of substance abuse.
  • Delinquency: repeated antisocial acts by a minor.
  • Academic: exam stress, poor concentration, dropping out.

Teachers and parents should avoid harshness. Counselling, guidance, sports, calm talk and role models help. The teacher is a friend, guide and mentor, not only a judge.

Groups

A group is two or more persons who interact, share a goal and influence each other.

TypeMeaning
Primary groupClose, face-to-face and lasting (family, close friends)
Secondary groupLarger, formal, goal-based (class, school, club)
In-group / out-group"We" vs. "they"
Formal / informalWith rules and set roles / natural friendship
Reference groupGroup whose values a person follows

Peer group: equals in age and status. It gives a sense of belonging, but pressure may push a child toward good or bad behaviour. Sociometry (Moreno) is used to study choices and popularity in a class using a sociogram. The terms group cohesion, norms and conformity are used.

Leadership

A leader influences others to work toward a goal.

Style (Lewin)FeaturesClassroom effect
AutocraticLeader decides everythingQuick, but low morale, dependence
DemocraticDecisions with the groupBest: high morale, creativity
Laissez-faireLeader gives no directionLittle order, poor output

Traits of a good leader: confidence, communication, fairness, vision, empathy. A teacher as leader uses a democratic style, shares tasks, rotates class leader roles, and praises cooperation. Student councils and monitors teach leadership.

Role of the school in socialisation

The school is a small society. It has rules, routines and a hidden curriculum, which means the values children learn through the way the school works, not only from lessons. A fair teacher, a clean and safe building, and respect for all castes, religions and genders teach more than speeches. Co-curricular activities such as sports, scouts, NSS, drama and student councils build teamwork and leadership. Inclusive classrooms help children with disabilities and from weaker groups feel they belong.

Problems of childhood to watch for

  • Separation anxiety on first days of school.
  • Bullying (victims and bullies both need help).
  • Lying, stealing and anger are signs of unmet needs more often than "bad character".
  • Fear of failure and exam stress.
  • Excess screen time and reduced play.

A teacher should talk to the child privately, meet parents, and refer to counsellors when needed.

Guidance and counselling

Guidance helps a person choose and adjust. Counselling is a face-to-face helping talk. In directive counselling the counsellor leads; in non-directive (client-centred, Rogers) the client leads. Good counsellors keep confidence, listen and do not judge. Teachers do preventive guidance: they notice, listen and refer.

Group dynamics in the classroom

Groups pass through forming, norms and cooperation. Group cohesion means how strongly members feel attached. Competition may raise effort but can hurt weaker children; cooperation builds friendship and learning. Cooperative learning in small mixed groups with clear roles works well. Isolates (children no one chooses) and stars (many choose) can be found by a sociogram, and the teacher can then seat and group children thoughtfully.

Child rights and protection

Children have rights to survival, protection, development and participation. Corporal punishment and mental harassment are banned in schools under the RTE Act. Schools should have a safe environment, and the teacher should report abuse. The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act protects children from sexual abuse. Childline 1098 is a national helpline for children in need. A teacher must know the basic duty to protect and report.

Developing a healthy sense of self in school

  • Give each child a role: monitor, reader, helper.
  • Praise effort and progress, not only marks.
  • Treat mistakes as chances to learn.
  • Let children set small goals and meet them.
  • Avoid nicknames and public shaming.

Children with a positive self-concept try harder tasks, show more persistence and relate better to peers.

Peer group in adolescence

Peer groups, called cliques and crowds, matter more than parents for many teenage choices of dress, music and speech. This is normal. A teacher can use the peer group for good by forming study groups, clubs and service teams. Teachers should also watch for isolation and bullying, and talk to students who are always alone.

Exam traps

  • The family is the primary agent; school is a secondary agent.
  • Authoritative is warm and firm; authoritarian is strict and cold. Do not mix them.
  • Parallel play is playing side by side; cooperative play is joint work toward a goal.
  • Self-concept is belief about the self; self-esteem is its valuation.
  • Sociometry is by Moreno; the diagram is a sociogram.
  • Lewin's three styles are autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire.
  • Primary groups are close and informal; secondary are formal.
  • The surplus energy theory and the recreation theory give opposite ideas.

One-liners

  • 1. Socialisation begins at home.
  • 2. Baumrind described parenting styles.
  • 3. Parten described stages of social play.
  • 4. Froebel is the father of kindergarten.
  • 5. The democratic leader is best in a classroom.
  • 6. Lewin studied leadership styles.
  • 7. Moreno developed sociometry.
  • 8. Identity is the key need of adolescents.
  • 9. Peer pressure peaks in adolescence.
  • 10. Article 21A concerns education.
  • 11. Cooley gave the looking-glass self.
  • 12. Self-efficacy is a Bandura term.

Practice questions

  1. The process by which a child learns the values, language and roles of society is

    1. socialisation
    2. maturation
    3. conditioning
    4. accommodation
    Answer

    A. socialisation

    Socialisation makes the child a member of society.

  2. The primary agent of socialisation is the

    1. mass media
    2. family
    3. school
    4. peer group
    Answer

    B. family

    The family gives the first lessons.

  3. The parenting style that is warm and firm and explains rules is

    1. permissive
    2. authoritative
    3. neglectful
    4. authoritarian
    Answer

    B. authoritative

    It is regarded as the best style.

  4. Parenting styles were described by

    1. Baumrind
    2. Lewin
    3. Parten
    4. Moreno
    Answer

    A. Baumrind

    Baumrind named authoritative, authoritarian and permissive styles.

  5. The strict, cold style demanding obedience is

    1. authoritative
    2. permissive
    3. democratic
    4. authoritarian
    Answer

    D. authoritarian

    It has little warmth.

  6. Children playing side by side without interacting show

    1. parallel play
    2. cooperative play
    3. onlooker play
    4. solitary play
    Answer

    A. parallel play

    Parten described this stage.

  7. The stages of social play were described by

    1. Moreno
    2. Piaget
    3. Parten
    4. Baumrind
    Answer

    C. Parten

    Parten listed six stages from unoccupied to cooperative.

  8. The father of the kindergarten system is

    1. Montessori
    2. Lewin
    3. Moreno
    4. Froebel
    Answer

    D. Froebel

    Froebel started the kindergarten with play-way learning.

  9. The surplus energy theory of play is linked with

    1. Groos
    2. Spencer
    3. Hall
    4. Lazarus
    Answer

    B. Spencer

    Play releases excess energy.

  10. The practice theory of play, saying play prepares for adult life, is by

    1. Lazarus
    2. Spencer
    3. Groos
    4. Froebel
    Answer

    C. Groos

    Groos saw play as practice for later life.

  11. The three leadership styles autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire were studied by

    1. Cooley
    2. Lewin
    3. Moreno
    4. Baumrind
    Answer

    B. Lewin

    Lewin's classic study of styles.

  12. The best leadership style for a classroom is

    1. dictatorial
    2. autocratic
    3. laissez-faire
    4. democratic
    Answer

    D. democratic

    It gives high morale and creativity.

  13. Sociometry was developed by

    1. Moreno
    2. Lewin
    3. Erikson
    4. Parten
    Answer

    A. Moreno

    Moreno used the sociogram.

  14. The diagram that shows friendship choices in a class is a

    1. histogram
    2. pedigree
    3. sociogram
    4. bar graph only
    Answer

    C. sociogram

    A sociogram maps social choices.

  15. The RTE Act (2009) ensures free and compulsory education for children aged

    1. 3 to 6 years
    2. 6 to 14 years
    3. 14 to 18 years
    4. 5 to 10 years only
    Answer

    B. 6 to 14 years

    It covers elementary education.

  16. Article 21A of the Constitution concerns

    1. the right to education
    2. the right to property
    3. equality before law
    4. freedom of religion
    Answer

    A. the right to education

    Article 21A makes elementary education a fundamental right.

  17. Self-concept means

    1. what a person believes about oneself
    2. how a person is rated by others only
    3. inborn intelligence
    4. a habit
    Answer

    A. what a person believes about oneself

    It is one's view of oneself.

  18. Belief in one's own ability to perform a task is

    1. attitude
    2. self-image
    3. aptitude
    4. self-efficacy
    Answer

    D. self-efficacy

    Self-efficacy is a Bandura term.

  19. The looking-glass self, in which self grows from others' reactions, was proposed by

    1. Rogers
    2. Piaget
    3. Kohlberg
    4. Cooley
    Answer

    D. Cooley

    We see ourselves through others' eyes.

  20. The key need of adolescents emphasised by Erikson is

    1. reflexes
    2. identity
    3. object permanence
    4. conservation
    Answer

    B. identity

    Who am I is the main question.

  21. A group with close, face-to-face and lasting ties, such as the family, is a

    1. secondary group
    2. primary group
    3. reference group only
    4. formal group
    Answer

    B. primary group

    Primary groups are intimate.

  22. A school class or a club is an example of a

    1. secondary group
    2. primary group
    3. family group
    4. play group only
    Answer

    A. secondary group

    It is formal and goal-based.

  23. A teacher who allows pupils to take part in making class rules is using which leadership style?

    1. Authoritarian
    2. Autocratic
    3. Democratic
    4. Laissez-faire
    Answer

    C. Democratic

    Decisions are shared with the group.

  24. A parent says, 'Do as I say, no questions.' This is

    1. permissive parenting
    2. neglectful parenting
    3. authoritarian parenting
    4. authoritative parenting
    Answer

    C. authoritarian parenting

    Strict and little explanation.

  25. A parent who gives no rules and little attention is

    1. authoritative
    2. authoritarian
    3. democratic
    4. neglectful
    Answer

    D. neglectful

    Little warmth and little control.

  26. A shy pupil is given a small role in group work to build confidence. The teacher is helping the child's

    1. maturation only
    2. sense of self
    3. heredity
    4. reflexes
    Answer

    B. sense of self

    Success experiences strengthen self-concept.

  27. A teenager follows friends' dress and speech strongly. This shows

    1. fixation
    2. object permanence
    3. peer influence
    4. animism
    Answer

    C. peer influence

    Peer pressure peaks in adolescence.

  28. A teacher finds a pupil who is chosen by no one in the sociogram. The pupil is called

    1. a leader
    2. a clique head
    3. a star
    4. an isolate
    Answer

    D. an isolate

    An isolate receives no choices.

  29. Name-calling such as 'dull' tends to lower a pupil's

    1. self-esteem
    2. sex characters
    3. reflexes
    4. height
    Answer

    A. self-esteem

    Labels harm self-concept.

  30. Statements: 1. The family is the primary agent of socialisation. 2. The school is also an agent of socialisation. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

  31. Statements: 1. Authoritative parents are warm and firm. 2. Permissive parents set strict limits. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Permissive parents set few limits.

  32. Statements: 1. Play is spontaneous and chosen by the child. 2. Play helps physical, social and language growth. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

  33. Statements: 1. In cooperative play children work toward a shared goal. 2. In parallel play children play together with shared rules. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Parallel play is side by side.

  34. Statements: 1. Adolescents need identity and belonging. 2. Adolescents need no guidance. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    They need guidance with freedom.

  35. Statements: 1. Laissez-faire leadership gives no direction. 2. Autocratic leaders decide everything. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both describe the styles.

  36. Statements: 1. Sociometry studies choices among group members. 2. A sociogram is a diagram of these choices. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

  37. Statements: 1. Self-esteem is how one values oneself. 2. Self-esteem is the same as intelligence. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Self-esteem is a feeling of worth.

  38. Statements: 1. Corporal punishment is allowed under the RTE Act. 2. The RTE Act covers elementary education. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The Act bans physical punishment.

  39. Match the play theory with the idea. 1. Surplus energy 2. Practice 3. Recreation

    1. 1 - prepares for life; 2 - restores energy; 3 - excess energy
    2. 1 - excess energy; 2 - restores energy; 3 - prepares for life
    3. 1 - restores energy; 2 - excess energy; 3 - prepares for life
    4. 1 - excess energy; 2 - prepares for life; 3 - restores energy
    Answer

    D. 1 - excess energy; 2 - prepares for life; 3 - restores energy

    Spencer: surplus; Groos: practice; Lazarus: recreation.

  40. Match the leadership style with the description. 1. Autocratic 2. Democratic 3. Laissez-faire

    1. 1 - no direction; 2 - leader decides; 3 - shared decisions
    2. 1 - leader decides; 2 - no direction; 3 - shared decisions
    3. 1 - shared decisions; 2 - leader decides; 3 - no direction
    4. 1 - leader decides; 2 - shared decisions; 3 - no direction
    Answer

    D. 1 - leader decides; 2 - shared decisions; 3 - no direction

    Standard descriptions.

  41. Match the scholar with the work. 1. Baumrind 2. Parten 3. Moreno

    1. 1 - play stages; 2 - sociometry; 3 - parenting styles
    2. 1 - parenting styles; 2 - play stages; 3 - sociometry
    3. 1 - sociometry; 2 - parenting styles; 3 - play stages
    4. 1 - parenting styles; 2 - sociometry; 3 - play stages
    Answer

    B. 1 - parenting styles; 2 - play stages; 3 - sociometry

    Baumrind: parenting; Parten: play; Moreno: sociometry.

  42. Match the parenting style with its effect. 1. Authoritative 2. Authoritarian 3. Permissive

    1. 1 - confident child; 2 - poor self-control; 3 - fearful child
    2. 1 - confident child; 2 - fearful child; 3 - poor self-control
    3. 1 - fearful child; 2 - confident child; 3 - poor self-control
    4. 1 - poor self-control; 2 - fearful child; 3 - confident child
    Answer

    B. 1 - confident child; 2 - fearful child; 3 - poor self-control

    Standard effects.

  43. A school where children learn respect for all castes and genders through daily practice shows the power of

    1. the hidden curriculum
    2. fixation
    3. maturation only
    4. extinction
    Answer

    A. the hidden curriculum

    Values are learned from how the school works.

  44. A teacher wants to reduce bullying. The best first step is to

    1. punish the whole class
    2. ignore it
    3. publicly shame the bully
    4. talk privately to all involved and set clear, fair rules
    Answer

    D. talk privately to all involved and set clear, fair rules

    Dialogue and rules help both victim and bully.

  45. In which kind of group do members mostly follow the norms of a group they wish to belong to?

    1. Isolated group
    2. Random group
    3. Primary group only
    4. Reference group
    Answer

    D. Reference group

    A reference group sets standards for a person.

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