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Child Development and Educational Psychology · Chapter 5

Individual Differences

What to remember

  • No two children are alike. They differ in intelligence, creativity, aptitude, interests, attitudes, habits and learning style, so a teacher must use varied methods.
  • IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) x 100. Gardner gave eight kinds of intelligence; Goleman made EQ popular.
  • Aptitude is potential to learn; attitude is a learned tendency to react; interest is liking for an activity; habit is a fixed way of acting.

Meaning and causes of individual differences

Individual differences are the variations between learners in body, mind, feelings and behaviour. Causes: heredity, environment, age, gender, culture, family and nutrition. Areas: intelligence, aptitude, interest, personality, motivation, learning style, speed and achievement. Classroom use: flexible teaching, group work, remedial and enrichment tasks, peer tutoring, varied assessment and individual attention.

Intelligence: meaning

Intelligence is the ability to learn, reason, solve problems and adapt to new situations. Binet and Simon made the first useful intelligence scale in France (1905). Terman revised it as the Stanford-Binet. The concept of IQ came from Stern and was used by Terman.

IQ formula: IQ = (MA / CA) x 100

Worked example: a child has mental age 12 and chronological age 10. IQ = (12 / 10) x 100 = 120.

Average IQ is about 100.

Common classification (Terman style):

IQDescription
Above 140Genius or near-genius
120-139Very superior
110-119Superior
90-109Normal or average
80-89Dull normal
70-79Borderline
Below 70Mental deficiency (intellectual disability)

Bands may differ slightly between books.

Theories of intelligence

TheoryProponentIdea
Two-factorSpearmanGeneral factor (g) and specific factors (s)
Group factor (primary mental abilities)ThurstoneSeven primary abilities, such as verbal, number, spatial, memory, reasoning
Multiple intelligencesGardnerMany independent intelligences
TriarchicSternbergAnalytical, creative and practical
Structure of intellectGuilford120 factors from operations, contents and products
Fluid and crystallisedCattellFluid is reasoning; crystallised is learned knowledge
Uni-factorBinet, TermanOne general ability
HierarchicalVernonLevels of factors
Multi-factorThorndikeMany small specific connections

Multiple intelligences (Howard Gardner)

Eight kinds are widely listed:

  • 1. Linguistic (words)
  • 2. Logical-mathematical
  • 3. Spatial (visual)
  • 4. Musical
  • 5. Bodily-kinaesthetic
  • 6. Interpersonal (understanding others)
  • 7. Intrapersonal (understanding oneself)
  • 8. Naturalistic (nature)

A ninth, existential, is sometimes discussed. Classroom use: teach the same topic through many ways such as song, drawing, role play, group work and nature walks, so that every child can shine.

IQ and EQ

EQ means the ability to know and manage one's own feelings, understand others and handle relationships. Parts: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, social skills (Goleman). High EQ helps in teamwork and stress. A teacher can raise EQ by role play, stories, circle time and by showing calm behaviour.

PointIQEQ
MeasuresThinking and reasoningHandling emotions and relationships
SourceScales like BinetSelf-rating or situation tests
ChangesFairly stableCan be developed by training

Types of tests

Verbal tests need language. Non-verbal (performance) tests, such as Raven's Progressive Matrices, use pictures and shapes, and are less affected by language. Group tests (Army Alpha and Beta) can be given to many at once; individual tests (Binet, Wechsler) give detailed results. Wechsler scales give a deviation IQ.

Creativity

Creativity is the ability to produce ideas or products that are new and useful.

  • Thinking types: convergent (one correct answer) and divergent (many possible answers). Guilford linked creativity with divergent thinking.
  • Components (Torrance): fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration.
  • Steps (Wallas): preparation, incubation, illumination, verification.
  • Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking are well known.
  • Fostering: open questions, freedom, projects, brainstorming, acceptance of unusual answers, no fear of mistakes.
  • Creativity and intelligence are related but not the same; a very creative child need not have a very high IQ.

Aptitude

Aptitude is a person's natural potential or capacity to learn a particular skill after training. It predicts future success. Types: mechanical, clerical, musical, scientific, numerical, verbal. Aptitude differs from achievement, which is what has already been learned. Tests: Differential Aptitude Test (DAT). Aptitude tests are used in guidance and career choice.

Attitude

Attitude is a learned, relatively stable tendency to feel and act in a certain way toward a person, thing or idea. Three parts: cognitive (belief), affective (feeling) and behavioural (action). Attitudes are learned from home, peers and media and can be changed by experience, good models and information. Measurement: Likert scale (five points), Thurstone scale. The teacher's attitude strongly affects the pupil's attitude to a subject. Scientific attitude includes curiosity, open mind, objectivity and respect for evidence.

Interest

Interest is a feeling of liking or attention to a thing or activity. It is a strong motive for learning. Types: expressed, manifest, tested and inventoried interests (Super). Kuder Preference Record and Strong Vocational Interest Blank are interest inventories. Teachers can raise interest through real-life links, activity, questions, praise, and variety.

Habit

A habit is a learned pattern of behaviour that is performed almost automatically. Formed by repetition and satisfaction (Thorndike's law of effect). Good habits: punctuality, cleanliness, regular study. Bad habits can be broken by replacing them with good ones, by motivation and by consistent practice. William James said habit is the great flywheel of society. Habits save effort but need guidance in early years.

Learning styles

Learning style is the preferred way in which a person takes in and processes information.

StylePreference
VisualCharts, pictures, diagrams
AuditoryListening, discussion, speaking
KinaestheticDoing, touching, moving
Read-writeReading and writing notes

These four are the VARK model (Fleming). Kolb described four styles linked to the experiential learning cycle: diverging, assimilating, converging and accommodating. Teachers should combine modes: say it, show it and let children do it.

Measuring individual differences

Tests should be valid (measure what they claim), reliable (give steady results) and objective (the scorer's opinion does not matter). Standardised tests have norms from a large sample. Percentile rank shows the position of a child in a group. Tests of intelligence, aptitude, interest, attitude and personality help the teacher in guidance, but a single score must never be used to label a child.

Gifted and slow learners

Gifted children have very high ability. They need enrichment (more depth), acceleration (faster pace) and challenge, or they become bored. Slow learners have below-average ability but are not necessarily disabled. They need patience, simple steps, repetition, concrete examples and remedial teaching. Children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia (reading), dysgraphia (writing) and dyscalculia (number) may have normal intelligence but need special strategies. Inclusive education aims to teach all together with suitable support.

Teaching for differences

  • Use many examples, media and activities.
  • Allow different ways to show learning: speak, draw, write, act.
  • Set tasks at different levels in the same class.
  • Use cooperative groups and peer tutoring.
  • Give time, praise and feedback to each child.
  • Avoid comparison and ranking in public.

Intelligence: nature and nurture

Heredity sets a range for intelligence, but a rich environment, good nutrition, schooling and encouragement can raise performance within that range. Studies of twins show that identical twins have more similar IQ scores than fraternal twins, which points to a role for heredity. Poverty, poor diet and a lack of stimulation can lower the score. The teacher cannot change heredity but can improve the environment.

Personality note

Personality is the unique combination of traits that make a person behave in a typical way. Allport and Cattell studied traits. Introvert and extrovert are types described by Jung. Personality tests include questionnaires and projective tests like the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Projective tests use unclear pictures and the person's story reveals inner feelings.

Motivation link

Interest and attitude both depend on motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from inside (curiosity, enjoyment); extrinsic motivation comes from outside (prizes, marks). Intrinsic motivation lasts longer. Teachers can raise motivation by giving choices, clear goals, success experiences and meaningful tasks.

Exam traps

  • IQ = MA/CA x 100, not CA/MA.
  • Spearman: g and s; Thurstone: primary mental abilities; Gardner: multiple intelligences. Do not mix.
  • Convergent means one right answer; divergent means many answers.
  • Aptitude is potential; achievement is what is learned.
  • An attitude has three parts: cognitive, affective and behavioural.
  • Binet-Simon gave the first scale; Terman made the Stanford-Binet.
  • Likert scale measures attitude; Kuder measures interest.
  • EQ was made popular by Goleman, but IQ tests did not originate with him.

One-liners

  • 1. Intelligence is the ability to adapt and solve problems.
  • 2. IQ equals MA divided by CA times 100.
  • 3. Average IQ is about 100.
  • 4. Spearman proposed the two-factor theory.
  • 5. Gardner named eight intelligences.
  • 6. Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory.
  • 7. Guilford stressed divergent thinking.
  • 8. Torrance made tests of creativity.
  • 9. Raven's matrices are non-verbal.
  • 10. Aptitude predicts future learning.
  • 11. The Likert scale is used for attitudes.
  • 12. VARK stands for visual, auditory, read-write and kinaesthetic.

Practice questions

  1. The IQ formula is

    1. (MA + CA) / 2
    2. (MA / CA) x 100
    3. (CA / MA) x 100
    4. MA x CA
    Answer

    B. (MA / CA) x 100

    IQ is mental age divided by chronological age, times 100.

  2. A child has mental age 12 and chronological age 10. The IQ is

    1. 83
    2. 100
    3. 110
    4. 120
    Answer

    D. 120

    12 / 10 x 100 = 120.

  3. A child has mental age 8 and chronological age 10. The IQ is

    1. 90
    2. 70
    3. 80
    4. 125
    Answer

    C. 80

    8 / 10 x 100 = 80.

  4. A child of 8 years has an IQ of 125. Mental age is

    1. 6 years
    2. 10 years
    3. 12 years
    4. 8 years
    Answer

    B. 10 years

    MA = IQ x CA / 100 = 125 x 8 / 100 = 10.

  5. A child has chronological age 15 and IQ 90. Mental age is

    1. 16.5 years
    2. 13.5 years
    3. 15 years
    4. 12 years
    Answer

    B. 13.5 years

    MA = 90 x 15 / 100 = 13.5.

  6. A child has mental age 9 and IQ 75. Chronological age is

    1. 12 years
    2. 9 years
    3. 6.75 years
    4. 10 years
    Answer

    A. 12 years

    CA = MA x 100 / IQ = 900 / 75 = 12.

  7. A child with mental age 14 and chronological age 10 has IQ

    1. 104
    2. 114
    3. 140
    4. 71
    Answer

    C. 140

    14 / 10 x 100 = 140.

  8. The first useful intelligence scale was made by

    1. Terman
    2. Wechsler
    3. Spearman
    4. Binet and Simon
    Answer

    D. Binet and Simon

    They developed it in France.

  9. The Stanford-Binet scale was developed by

    1. Binet only
    2. Gardner
    3. Terman
    4. Thurstone
    Answer

    C. Terman

    Terman revised the Binet scale in America.

  10. The two-factor theory of intelligence is by

    1. Gardner
    2. Spearman
    3. Thurstone
    4. Guilford
    Answer

    B. Spearman

    It has a general factor g and specific factors s.

  11. Primary mental abilities were proposed by

    1. Thurstone
    2. Sternberg
    3. Spearman
    4. Cattell
    Answer

    A. Thurstone

    Thurstone listed seven primary abilities.

  12. The theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by

    1. Thorndike
    2. Binet
    3. Spearman
    4. Howard Gardner
    Answer

    D. Howard Gardner

    Gardner named eight intelligences.

  13. The triarchic theory consists of analytical, creative and practical intelligence. It is by

    1. Sternberg
    2. Gardner
    3. Binet
    4. Guilford
    Answer

    A. Sternberg

    Sternberg's three-part theory.

  14. The Structure of Intellect model is by

    1. Vernon
    2. Guilford
    3. Terman
    4. Cattell
    Answer

    B. Guilford

    Guilford's model has 120 factors.

  15. Which of these is NOT among Gardner's eight intelligences?

    1. Interpersonal
    2. Musical
    3. Naturalistic
    4. Emotional
    Answer

    D. Emotional

    Emotional intelligence is Goleman's concept.

  16. Understanding oneself is the intelligence called

    1. interpersonal
    2. linguistic
    3. intrapersonal
    4. spatial
    Answer

    C. intrapersonal

    Intra means within.

  17. Dancers and athletes show high

    1. bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
    2. linguistic intelligence
    3. musical intelligence only
    4. logical intelligence only
    Answer

    A. bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence

    They use body movement skilfully.

  18. Thinking that gives many possible answers is

    1. rote thinking
    2. routine thinking
    3. convergent thinking
    4. divergent thinking
    Answer

    D. divergent thinking

    Guilford linked it with creativity.

  19. Fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration are components of

    1. habit
    2. aptitude
    3. creativity
    4. attitude
    Answer

    C. creativity

    Torrance's components.

  20. Preparation, incubation, illumination and verification are steps in

    1. attitude change
    2. creative thinking
    3. IQ testing
    4. habit formation
    Answer

    B. creative thinking

    Wallas described these steps.

  21. Raven's Progressive Matrices is a

    1. interest inventory
    2. non-verbal intelligence test
    3. personality inventory
    4. verbal test
    Answer

    B. non-verbal intelligence test

    It uses shapes and patterns.

  22. Natural potential to learn a skill after training is

    1. achievement
    2. habit
    3. aptitude
    4. attitude
    Answer

    C. aptitude

    Aptitude predicts future learning.

  23. Learned, stable tendency to react to a thing, person or idea is

    1. aptitude
    2. interest
    3. motive only
    4. attitude
    Answer

    D. attitude

    Attitudes are learned.

  24. The Likert scale is used to measure

    1. attitude
    2. IQ
    3. creativity
    4. aptitude
    Answer

    A. attitude

    It has a five-point response format.

  25. The Kuder Preference Record measures

    1. intelligence
    2. interest
    3. habit
    4. creativity
    Answer

    B. interest

    It is an interest inventory.

  26. A learned, almost automatic pattern of behaviour is a

    1. trait only
    2. habit
    3. aptitude
    4. schema
    Answer

    B. habit

    Habits are formed by repetition.

  27. The VARK model describes

    1. learning styles
    2. play stages
    3. moral stages
    4. intelligence types
    Answer

    A. learning styles

    Visual, auditory, read-write, kinaesthetic.

  28. A student who learns best from charts and diagrams is a

    1. auditory learner
    2. kinaesthetic learner
    3. read-write learner
    4. visual learner
    Answer

    D. visual learner

    Visual learners prefer pictures.

  29. A teacher teaches the same topic through a song, a drawing and a role play. She is applying

    1. operant conditioning
    2. two-factor theory
    3. multiple intelligences
    4. structure of intellect
    Answer

    C. multiple intelligences

    Different ways reach different strengths.

  30. A child who solves puzzles well but struggles to understand people shows strong

    1. musical but weak naturalistic
    2. linguistic but weak spatial
    3. intrapersonal but weak logical
    4. logical but weak interpersonal intelligence
    Answer

    D. logical but weak interpersonal intelligence

    Intelligences are independent in Gardner's view.

  31. A gifted child who is bored in class is best helped by

    1. punishment
    2. repeating the same work
    3. enrichment and challenge
    4. lower marks
    Answer

    C. enrichment and challenge

    Gifted children need depth and challenge.

  32. Slow learners need

    1. patience, repetition and concrete examples
    2. no attention
    3. harsh comparison
    4. only advanced tasks
    Answer

    A. patience, repetition and concrete examples

    Remedial help in simple steps is best.

  33. Statements: 1. Intelligence quotient equals mental age divided by chronological age times 100. 2. An average IQ is about 100. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

  34. Statements: 1. Aptitude is potential to learn. 2. Achievement is what has already been learned. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

  35. Statements: 1. Attitude has cognitive, affective and behavioural parts. 2. Attitudes cannot be changed. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Attitudes can be changed by experience.

  36. Statements: 1. Convergent thinking seeks one correct answer. 2. Divergent thinking seeks many answers. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

  37. Statements: 1. EQ can be developed by training. 2. IQ was made popular by Goleman. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Goleman popularised EQ, not IQ.

  38. Statements: 1. Spearman proposed a general factor g. 2. Gardner proposed one general intelligence only. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Gardner proposed multiple intelligences.

  39. Statements: 1. Intrinsic motivation comes from inside the learner. 2. Extrinsic motivation comes from rewards outside. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

  40. Statements: 1. A creative child must always have a very high IQ. 2. Creativity and intelligence are related but not identical. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    A creative child need not have a very high IQ.

  41. Match the theorist with the theory. 1. Spearman 2. Thurstone 3. Sternberg

    1. 1 - triarchic; 2 - g and s; 3 - primary mental abilities
    2. 1 - primary mental abilities; 2 - triarchic; 3 - g and s
    3. 1 - g and s; 2 - triarchic; 3 - primary mental abilities
    4. 1 - g and s; 2 - primary mental abilities; 3 - triarchic
    Answer

    D. 1 - g and s; 2 - primary mental abilities; 3 - triarchic

    Standard matches.

  42. Match the test with what it measures. 1. Raven's matrices 2. Kuder record 3. Likert scale

    1. 1 - interest; 2 - attitude; 3 - non-verbal intelligence
    2. 1 - non-verbal intelligence; 2 - attitude; 3 - interest
    3. 1 - attitude; 2 - interest; 3 - non-verbal intelligence
    4. 1 - non-verbal intelligence; 2 - interest; 3 - attitude
    Answer

    D. 1 - non-verbal intelligence; 2 - interest; 3 - attitude

    Raven: intelligence; Kuder: interest; Likert: attitude.

  43. Match the intelligence with an example. 1. Naturalistic 2. Spatial 3. Musical

    1. 1 - singer; 2 - botanist; 3 - sculptor
    2. 1 - botanist; 2 - sculptor; 3 - singer
    3. 1 - sculptor; 2 - botanist; 3 - singer
    4. 1 - sculptor; 2 - singer; 3 - botanist
    Answer

    B. 1 - botanist; 2 - sculptor; 3 - singer

    Naturalist: botanist; spatial: sculptor; musical: singer.

  44. Match the term with the scholar. 1. Convergent and divergent thinking 2. Fluid and crystallised intelligence 3. Hierarchical theory

    1. 1 - Guilford; 2 - Vernon; 3 - Cattell
    2. 1 - Guilford; 2 - Cattell; 3 - Vernon
    3. 1 - Vernon; 2 - Cattell; 3 - Guilford
    4. 1 - Cattell; 2 - Guilford; 3 - Vernon
    Answer

    B. 1 - Guilford; 2 - Cattell; 3 - Vernon

    Guilford, Cattell and Vernon respectively.

  45. Which scales give a deviation IQ and include verbal and performance parts?

    1. Torrance tests
    2. Likert scales
    3. Kuder records
    4. Wechsler scales
    Answer

    D. Wechsler scales

    Wechsler designed individual intelligence scales with deviation IQ.

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